History

For centuries, the legendary lost city of Atlantis has captivated the human imagination. Its first description by the ancient Greek philosopher Plato in 360 BC made it seem incredibly advanced and ever since, this lost civilization that disappeared beneath the oceans was subject to great interest and scrutiny. For millennia, scholars, adventurers, treasure seekers, and archaeologists alike all sought this fabled city and its submerged wonders. Yet no one ever found it.

Did it ever exist? Are we getting any closer to the truth in the modern age?

The Origins of the Story of Atlantis

The famed ancient Greek philosopher, Plato, was the first to mention Atlantis, and described it as a wondrous and very advanced civilization that once waged war on Athens but has disappeared long since. Writing in his dialogue “Critias”, Plato tells us that he first heard of the story of Atlantis from his grandfather, who had heard it from the Athenian statesman Solon, some 150 to 200 years before Plato’s time. Solon, in turn, learned the story from an Ancient Egyptian priest, who claimed that Atlantis thrived roughly 9,000 years before that time. This advanced age and the described magnificence all added to the great mystery of this fabled land.

In his accounts of Atlantis in “Critias” and “Timaeus”, Plato describes it as an island, larger than Libya and Asia combined (common comparisons in his time), and was located beyond the Pillars of Hercules (the modern Strait of Gibraltar). Powerful, superior in technology and art, and one of the greatest civilizations in the world, Atlantis was said to have been way above its contemporaries in the distant past. But even so, it perished. Plato says that this major power had “fallen out of favor with the Gods”, and as a result it was swallowed by the ocean “in a single day and night of misfortune”.

A printed edition of ‘Timaeus’ in Latin, from 1491. (Public Domain)

And ever since, the mystery of this place has endured. Plato seemed confident in its existence, dedicating substantial work to write about it and introduce it to the general public. But even so, the question remains – is it real? Because no one knew where exactly the site of the city was, and because it is supposedly now far below the surface of the seas, what became of the story of Atlantis is it is now relegated to the category of myth . But nevertheless, centuries of scholars and historians came up with theories that Atlantis might be an ancient name for some other civilization, whose remnants are known to the world.

Centuries of Theories

One of the earliest theories about the possible origin of Atlantis was the connection with the ancient Minoan civilization. This theory placed Atlantis within the Mediterranean, and aligns it with the civilization of the Minoans, which flourished on the island of Crete and the neighboring islands of the Aegean Sea. The Minoans existed roughly between 3100 and 1100 BC, and at their height were one of the most impressive ancient cultures. Known for their complex urban planning, the impressive architecture and lavish palaces, and their hegemony over contemporary maritime trade networks, the Minoans were truly a sophisticated ancient civilization.

Yet even so, this civilization disappeared almost suddenly. This decline and vanishing were linked to the devastating eruption of the Thera volcano, located on modern day island of Santorini and close to the northern shores of Crete. The eruption occurred in 1600 BC and was one of the largest volcanic eruptions in history. A catastrophe of great magnitude, the eruption caused widespread devastation across the region, creating enormous tsunamis, earthquakes, and ashfall that obliterated many advanced cities. Today, scholars believe that it is this volcanic eruption that inspired the legends of Atlantis, as an advanced and prosperous civilization was brought to an end because of this natural disaster.

Volcanic craters on Santorini, June 2001. (Rolfsteinar/CC BY-SA 3.0)

But even so, there is no direct evidence or link between Atlantis and the ancient Minoans. Even though their rapid demise, the geographical location, and all other similarities with the Atlantean myth make them a good candidate, nothing can be said for certain. Nevertheless, research continues.

The Azores, Atlantis in the Atlantic

A theory that has been around almost as long as the Minoan one is the one that places Atlantis in the Atlantic Ocean, specifically at the Azores Islands. This archipelago, located some 1500 kilometers (900 mi) west of the coast of Portugal, has long been associated with the location “beyond the Pillars of Hercules”, which Plato first described.

1584 map of the Azores Islands. (Public Domain)

During the 19th and 20th centuries, many scholars and explorers introduced the idea that the Azores are actually remnants of a larger land mass that sank beneath the ocean. What is more, it has been proposed that volcanic activity and tectonic shifts occurring in the past might have caused a previously existing civilization or a larger island to sink. The theorized mountain peaks remained above water – creating the modern Azores.

And even though this theory is highly popular amongst Atlantis believers, no concrete evidence exists to confirm this. Modern geological studies have largely debunked this idea, without any evidence that a larger landmass existed at this site. However, archaeological excavations in these islands were never conducted on a large scale, mainly because there was no evidence of previous human habitation before the arrival of the Portuguese explorers. But recently, new evidence appeared, showing that this might not be true.

Several Portuguese chronicles, from the time of the discovery of the Azores in the 1400s, mention some unique discoveries on some of the islands, specifically the smallest and the northernmost island of Corvo. Here, settlers discovered an odd equestrian statue carved in stone, with a dedication in an unknown script.

The stone monument was perched on a remote hilltop and attempts to remove it resulted in its destruction. Several remaining pieces were sent to Portugal to the royal court, but they were subsequently lost. Similarly, a hoard of ancient coins was discovered on the same island, containing coins of Carthage and Cyrene. All this led scholars to believe that the islands were known in ancient times, especially by Carthaginians. Could the Azores have been the site of a greater city that was lost?

Athanasius Kircher’s map of Atlantis from Mundus Subterraneus (“The Subterranean World”) (1669), drawn with south at the top. (Public Domain)

A Flurry of Theories

In a quest to discover the true origins of Atlantis, many explorers and scholars sought to find that crucial piece of evidence to prove its existence. One of the more notable theories centered on Atlantis belongs to Igatius Donnelly, an American politician and writer. In his 1882 book, “Atlantis: The Antediluvian World”, Donnelly writes that Atlantis was a real civilization, and that it served as a “progenitor” of all known ancient cultures. Furthermore, he suggested that advanced knowledge of agriculture, metallurgy, and architecture spread from Atlantis to the emerging civilizations such as Ancient Egypt, Mesoamerica, and Mesopotamia. Many sought to disprove and debunk the theories of Ignatius Donnelly, but his work nevertheless persists and is once more popular in modern circles and amongst believers in Atlantis.

Another popular belief holds that Atlantis can and will be discovered thanks to the appearance of modern discovery methods. Most notably, technological advancements such as sonar mapping and satellite imagery, can allow researchers to explore the landscapes beneath the oceans with incredible accuracy. In recent years, these tools helped uncover several submerged structures and landforms, whose origins are still a matter of heated debate. A notable example includes the Yonaguni Stone Platforms off the coast of Japan, whose massive stone formations are still unexplained.

 The enigmatic underwater Yonaguni monument.  (nudiblue/Adobe Stock)

One of the lesser-known theories links the Greek island of Atalanti, with the myth of Atlantis. Well known in ancient times, the island was mentioned by Greek and Roman writers such as Seneca, Pliny the Elder, Pausanias, Thucydides, Strabo, Livy, and others. They all mentioned the same facts: in ancient times, the island of Atalanti was “torn asunder” from the coastlines by a massive and devastating earthquake. As a result, a massive wave emerged (a tsunami), causing widespread destruction in the region. Could this place hold any secrets yet to be uncovered?

The Mystery of the Richat Structure

Currently one of the most popular Atlantis-related theories is the one linking this ancient myth with the enigmatic Richat Structure located in the Sahara desert. Also known as the Eye of the Sahara, this massive circular formation is situated in Mauritania and is the only such formation on the planet. Although its connection with Atlantis remains controversial, it is nevertheless the strongest candidate for the lost city in recent years. This geological formation spans roughly 40 kilometers (25 mi) in diameter and is composed of concentric circles, resembling a giant “bullseye” or “eye” from aerial or satellite images, hence its nickname. Scientists considered it a meteor impact crater, but the official designation is still uncertain.

And that is why modern Atlantis believers link this massive structure with the remnants of a lost city of wonders. The first piece of “evidence” is the location, which certainly could be “beyond the Pillars of Hercules” as Plato wrote. Of course, 9000 years before present, Sahara was not an arid and lifeless desert, but a lush and green savanna that had great conditions for life. What is more, Plato described Atlantis as a city that is made of three concentric rings of water separated by land, with a diameter similar to that of Richat structure. All these similarities led believers to place Atlantis right here.

Satellite picture of the Richat Structure (false color) (Public Domain)

Of course, the Richat structure today is located far inland from the sea, and in the middle of the barren Sahara. But believers suggest that the Sahara region may have been wetter in ancient times, with rivers or seas nearby, possibly connecting to the Atlantic Ocean. All this points to the possibility that some natural disaster or a sudden change in climate led to the rapid decline and abandonment of a thriving civilization that could have been Atlantis.

An Enduring Belief Without an Evidence

Most notable historians completely dismiss the idea of Atlantis as a separate, unique, and superior civilization that completely disappeared. Even after decades and generations of extensive research and numerous archaeological excavations, no concrete evidence of Atlantis has been found although many arguments for its possible location have been proposed. Of course, considering that it is likely submerged, discovering its remains without knowing where to look can be a considerable challenge. However, countless locations have been argued for and any submerged ruins that are discovered almost immediately have the Atlantis association attached.

Just a quick search on this website will bring you proposals for the location of Atlantis from Tunisia, to Ireland, India to the Azores and more, but none that has conclusive proof.

But even so, many scholars believe that Plato’s Atlantis did exist, and that it was in fact the Minoan Civilization. Superior and far more advanced than its contemporaries, especially the Greeks, this Cretan culture was held in high regard by all those who learned from it. But its sudden decline and disappearance due to a devastating natural disaster could have brought to life a theory of divine wrath and the submersion beneath the waves. Although we may never know the truth, the story of Atlantis will continue to captivate our shared imagination, and people will rightly search for evidence of its location and very existence.

Top image: A stylized rendering of Plato’s Atlantis by Russian artist Nicholas Roerich.          Source: Public Domain

By Aleksa Vučković

References
Spence, L. 1996. The History of Atlantis. Health Research Books.

Wilson, D. 2020. The Lost Atlantis and Other Ethnographic Studies. Library of Alexandria.

Zhirov, N. 2001. Atlantis: Atlantology: Basic Problems. The Minerva Group, Inc.

In October 1790, a significant event unfolded near what we now call the Lakeside neighborhoods of Fort Wayne—the Battle of Kekionga. At the heart of this clash was Chief Little Turtle of the Miami tribe, who skillfully led his warriors against General Josiah Harmar’s poorly equipped U.S. forces. Harmar’s men, many of whom had little to no combat experience, were no match for the Miami, resulting in a decisive victory for Chief Little Turtle.

The battle took place at the confluence of the three rivers, marking the first major conflict between U.S. forces and Native Americans in the Northwest Territory following the American Revolutionary War. Harmar’s forces suffered significant losses, culminating in what is now referred to as “Harmar’s Defeat,” a crucial moment memorialized in Fort Wayne along Edgewater Street.

Chief Little Turtle’s success at Kekionga, along with his later victory at the Battle of St. Clair in 1791, demonstrated his formidable leadership and military strategy. These defeats for the U.S. eventually led to the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. Recognizing that the sheer number of U.S. forces would overwhelm the Native American resistance, Little Turtle reluctantly signed the Treaty of Greenville in 1795, paving the way for peace between Native Americans and the U.S. government.

Despite his military prowess, Chief Little Turtle was also a visionary leader who sought peaceful coexistence between Native Americans and American settlers. He met with three U.S. presidents—George Washington, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson—and even received ceremonial gifts from Washington and General Kosciuszko. Throughout his life, he advocated against the destructive influence of alcohol on his people, further solidifying his legacy as a leader with a progressive vision.

Chief Little Turtle passed away in 1812, and a small memorial honoring his life can be found in Fort Wayne on Lawton Place. It was rediscovered in 1912 during construction work, where his grave, containing the ceremonial sword given to him by President Washington, was found. This little-known memorial serves as a reminder of his extraordinary life and the role he played in shaping the history of Fort Wayne.

To dive deeper into the history of Chief Little Turtle and the Battle of Kekionga, local author Jim Pickett’s historic fiction books— The Bones of Kekionga, The March to Kekionga, and The Siege of Kekionga —offer detailed and historically accurate narratives about these events, with carefully crafted dialogue that brings the era to life.

This chapter of history highlights not just the conflicts but also the enduring legacy of a leader who dreamed of peace and progress for his people.

Top image: Chief Little Turtle.   Source: Public Domain

By Ancient Origins

A stunning hoard of Viking silver coins that are over 1,000-years-old has been discovered on the Isle of Man, deepening the island’s rich Viking legacy. Unearthed in May 2024 by metal detectorists John Crowe and David O’Hare, the hoard consists of 36 silver coins, including whole coins and fragments, and was recently declared Treasure by Isle of Man Deputy Coroner of Inquests, Rebecca Cubbon.

The coins, dating from AD 1000 to 1065, provide a telling glimpse into the Viking Age economy in the Isle of Man. Allison Fox, Curator for Archaeology at Manx National Heritage, highlighted the find’s significance, noting the island’s unique position in the Viking world, where more Viking silver has been found per square kilometer than in other parts of the British Isles.

The coins are stamped with the heads of various kings dating between 1000 and 1065. (Manx National Heritage)

Vikings settled on the Isle of Man in the 800s AD and established a trade network with mainland Britain. Several Viking Age burials have been excavated on the Island, buried according to pagan traditions, and within these graves many rare Viking Age artifacts have been found, all of which can be seen in the Manx Museum, Douglas, on the Isle of Man.

Recent other finds include an impressive and very old hoard of silver Viking era coins, found by an ex-police officer while searching a farmer’s field with her metal detector in April 2021. This detectorist has also found a tidy little hoard of a gold arm-ring, a silver armband and a massive silver brooch at the end of 2020.

Closeup of one of the 36 coins found in the hoard. (Manx National Heritage)

A Collection of Kings Coinage

Examined by Viking coin expert Dr. Kristin Bornholdt Collins, the hoard features English coins minted during the reigns of Edward the Confessor, Aethelred II, and Canute, alongside Irish coins from Dublin bearing the image of Norse King Sihtric Silkbeard.

The variety of mints, including York, London, and Dublin, reveals the island’s role as a vital hub for Viking-era trade between England and Ireland.

The discovery offers valuable insight into the Isle of Man’s dynamic role in Viking economic networks. Dr. Bornholdt Collins suggests the hoard may have been assembled over several decades, reflecting the rich, interconnected maritime economy that flowed through the Irish Sea during the Viking Age.

The coins will be on display at the Manx Museum from October 2 to 13, 2024.

Top image: Left; Finders David O’Hare (left) and John Crowe (right), pictured with Allison Fox, Manx National Heritage Curator for Archaeology. Right; Various coins from the hoard.               Source: Manx National Heritage

By Gary Manners

A brilliant new study conducted by an international team of researchers has revealed the construction processes employed at the Casas del Turuñuelo archaeological site in Guareña, Badajoz, Spain. This research sheds new light on one of the best-preserved earthen structures from the Bronze Age in the western Mediterranean, offering a detailed reconstruction of its building methods, piecing together the techniques that allowed this colossal, monumental edifice to stand the test of time so successfully.

The research team, comprising scholars from the Universities of Helsinki and Murcia, as well as the Institute of Archaeology (CSIC—Junta de Extremadura), have been led by Esther Rodríguez Gonzales and Sebastian Celestino Pérez of CSIC since 2014. Working at the site dated to the 5th century BC, they’ve published their finds in the journal Scientific Reports.

Aerial view of the Casas del Turuñuelo site, where evidence of animal sacrifice conducted by the Tartessos culture was uncovered. (Iborra Eres, et. al. / CC BY 4.0 DEED)

In Harmony with Local Materials and Environmental Conditions

The construction techniques employed by the Tartessians demonstrate an advanced understanding of local materials and environmental conditions, with the use of adobe (sun-dried bricks) and rammed earth (compressed soil), which allowed them to create durable structures that were both sustainable and well-suited to the climate of southwestern Spain.

Marta Lorenzon, a prominent member of the research team from the University of Helsinki, emphasizes the core objectives of their study in a press release:

“We sought to investigate how earthen materials were processed and employed, the organizational structure behind the labor, and the degree of expertise within the community responsible for its construction. Our aim was to illuminate the building methods, resource exploitation, and the socio-political mechanisms that enabled such monumental architecture.”

By sourcing their building materials locally, they minimized the need for long-distance transportation and worked in harmony with the natural landscape. The Casas del Turuñuelo site, in particular, exemplifies these methods, showcasing a sophisticated coordination of labor, with skilled artisans overseeing the preparation and layering of earthen materials.

The Casas del Turuñuelo site, attributed to the Tartessian culture, showcases a sophisticated use of earthen construction materials, which, according to Benjamín Cutillas Victoria, one of the co-authors of the study, represents an adaptive and highly sustainable architectural approach. This approach reveals a level of ingenuity and environmental awareness in the Tartessians, often underexplored in previous scholarship.

Aerial view of the Casas del Turuñuelo tumulus, 2017. (Proyecto Construyendo Tarteso/Scientific Reports)

As Lorenzon notes:

“This research provides a valuable window into sustainable building techniques from antiquity, which could inform modern architectural practices. The coordinated use of local and natural resources exemplifies an eco-friendly approach that remains highly relevant today.”

In addition to architectural insights, this study offers a broader understanding of the socio-economic structures of ancient societies, particularly in terms of labor organization and resource distribution. The effective coordination of labor in such large-scale construction is almost unparallelled across history and time.

“The ability to reconstruct these ancient techniques provides invaluable insights into how this protohistoric culture thrived and adapted, offering a new dimension to our understanding of their ingenuity and resilience”, Lorenzon concludes.

The Tartessos: A Late Bronze Age Culture in the Iberian Peninsula

Tartessos, anchored by a thriving port city bearing its name, emerged in the ninth century BC as a dominant force in the southwestern third of the Iberian Peninsula. For approximately 400 years, it was regarded by the ancient Greeks and other contemporaries as a near-mythic civilization, renowned for its abundant resources and advanced technologies.

The Tartessos culture, emerging during the Late Bronze Age in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula, represented a unique blend of indigenous Paleo-Hispanic traditions and external Phoenician influences, reports The Heritage Daily. This hybrid culture developed in a region rich in natural resources, especially metals, and was characterized by its now-extinct Tartessian language.

They adopted various elements from their Phoenician trading partners in the Mediterranean, while still maintaining distinct local practices. This cultural exchange led to a society that was not only advanced in terms of trade and political organization but also distinct in its religious practices and artistic expression.

The Tartessians were particularly skilled in metallurgy, producing highly decorative and ornate metal objects that showcase their craftsmanship. Characteristic Tartessian bronze artifacts include pear-shaped jugs, shallow dish-shaped braziers with loop handles, incense burners adorned with floral motifs, and elaborate fibulas and belt buckles.

Their religious beliefs were similarly shaped by Phoenician influence, with deities such as Astarte (or Potnia) and Baal (or Melkar) being worshipped, illustrating the cultural integration that occurred through sustained contact with Phoenician traders.

However, after centuries of prominence, Tartessos abruptly vanished from the historical record, reports Atlas Obscura. The reasons behind its sudden disappearance remain a subject of debate among scholars. Some theories suggest that environmental changes, shifts in trade routes, or political upheaval contributed to the culture’s decline. Others speculate that Tartessos may have been absorbed or overshadowed by rising powers such as Carthage or Rome.

Top image: Mudbrick wall documented in the south corridor of the structure and a selection of imported materials, including glass bowls from the Eastern Mediterranean and a fragment of Pentelic marble sculpture.                 Source: Project Construyendo Tarteso/Scientific Reports

By Sahir Pandey

This video explores legendary femme fatales across Greek and Hindu mythologies. These women, known for their irresistible beauty and cunning, have been central figures in shaping epic tales, from the Trojan War to ancient Indian myths.

We first find Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love and beauty, whose allure led to intense rivalries among the gods. Her role in the Judgment of Paris is highlighted as the key event that sparked the infamous Trojan War. Alongside Aphrodite, the story of Helen of Troy, renowned as the most beautiful woman in the world, unfolds, showcasing the power of beauty in ancient warfare and diplomacy.

Shifting to Hindu mythology, Apsaras are explored. These celestial nymphs like Menka and Urvashi – were sent to seduce sages and kings. These ethereal beings could enchant even the mightiest of gods and mortals, using their beauty as a tool for manipulation. The tale of Vishnu’s incarnation as Mohini, a divine seductress who tricked the Asuras, adds another layer of intrigue.

These femme fatales, with their blend of mystery, beauty, and seduction, played pivotal roles in mythological tales of power, desire, and downfall. Watch the video to uncover the secrets behind these captivating figures and how their stories continue to enchant us today.

Top image: Apsara sculpture on the wall of Angkor Wat, Seam Reap, Cambodia.            Source: nuwatphoto/Adobe Stock

By Ancient Origins

The Behistun Inscription is an engraving located on the cliff of Mount Behistun (said to have had the meaning of ‘place where the gods dwell’ in antiquity). This inscription was written in three languages and is accompanied by a large rock relief. The Behistun Inscription is for the field of Assyriology what the Rosetta Stone is for Egyptology. Apart from aiding the decipherment of the cuneiform script, another importance of the Behistun Inscription is that it is the only known monumental text created by the Achaemenids that documents a specific historical event.

Mount Behistun: A Historic Cliffside Monument

The Behistun Inscription is located on Mount Behistun, about 60 m (196 ft) above the plain, in the western Iranian province of Kermanshah. The inscription has been measured to be about 15 m (49 ft) in height and 25 m (82 ft) in width, and was created by the Achaemenid king, Darius I in 521 BC. The inscription may be divided into four separate parts. The first of these is a large relief in which various figures are represented, the most prominent being Darius himself. The king is shown with a bow in his hand, a sign of his sovereignty.

Darius is depicted with one of his feet on the chest of an unidentified individual lying on his back. It is popularly believed that this figure is that of Gaumata, the pretender to the Achaemenid throne. Behind the king are Intaphrenes, Darius’ bow carrier, and Gobryas, his lance carrier. Before the king are nine individuals tied together with a rope around their necks and with their hands bound behind their backs. These are the nine rebels recorded to have been defeated by Darius. Finally, there is a representation of the supreme god Ahura Mazda above the mortals.

Relief of Darius I in Persepolis (Derfash Kaviani (درفش کاویانی)/CC BY-SA 3.0)

The other three parts of the inscription are the texts. These texts were written in the cuneiform script and tell (more or less) the same story. Nevertheless, they were written in three different languages. One of them is in Old Persian, another in Elamite, and the third in Akkadian. It has also been pointed out that a version of the Behistun Inscription, in Aramaic, was discovered on a papyrus scroll in Egypt.

Papyrus with an Aramaic translation of the Behistun inscription’s text. (Jona lendering/CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Rise of Darius I: Gaumata’s Impersonation and Defeat

In terms of content, the Behistun Inscription begins with Darius introducing himself. Here, the king provides his genealogy, perhaps as a means of justifying his occupation of the Achaemenid throne. The king also lists the countries that are under the control of the empire, and attributes his possession of them to Ahura Mazda, “…These are the countries which came to me; by the grace of Ahura Mazda, I became king of them…”

Ahura Mazda (on the right, with high crown) presents Ardashir I (left).  (Photo Ginolerhino 2002/CC BY-SA 3.0)

After this introduction, Darius provides his version of events leading to his attainment of the Achaemenid throne. According to the text, a Magian by the name of Gaumata impersonated Bardiya, the slain brother of Cambyses, who, at that time, was the king of the Achaemenid Empire. Gaumata is said to have usurped Cambyses’ power and became king. Darius succeeded in slaying Gaumata and became the new king. The next part of the text is about the rebellions that broke out across the empire during Darius’ reign. The king records that he had all these rebellions put down and defeated 9 kings in the process. Thus, this part of the text can be regarded as an attestation of the king’s military prowess.   

The Enduring Memory of the Behistun Inscription

The Behistun Inscription has been mentioned by several ancient authors, though some errors were made by them. For example, Ctesias, a Greek physician and historian, and Diodorus Siculus, attribute the text to the legendary Queen Semiramis. The memory of the monument continued even into the medieval period. Nevertheless, its creator was forgotten. It has been said that during this period, locals are attributed in the inscription to Khosrow II, one of the last Sassanian kings.

Close-up of the inscription (KendallKDown/CC BY-SA 3.0)

As for the translation of the text, it was only attained during the 19 th century, which allowed a correct interpretation of the relief. Prior to that, the carvings have been variously interpreted as a teacher punishing his students, Christ and his 12 apostles, and Shalmaneser of Assyria and the 12 tribes of Israel.

Top image: The Behistun Inscription, 520 BC, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Source: PersianDutchNetwork/CC BY-SA 4.0

By Wu Mingren

 In a new study carried out by the Director of the Polish Archaeological Institute of Athens, it has been revealed that the earliest Greeks carried amber to symbolize their connection to the Sun and to signal their elite social status.

“The Mycenaeans, the first Greeks in the Bronze Age, probably came here with amber,” said Professor Janusz Czebreszuk, in an interview with the Polish news agency PAP. “Amber has been present since the very beginning of Mycenaean culture.”

Researchers from the Polish Archaeological Institute of Athens know about the importance of amber to ancient Mycenaeans because of it presence in elite graves found in Greece that date to the second millennium BC. The oldest Mycenaean amber has been found only in the most elaborate burials, in the form of necklaces and various types of decorations worn on the head or in the hair. It was apparently worn by both genders.

Collection of seventeen amber beads found at Potidaea (Macedon) dated 600BC-480 BC. (© The Trustees of the British Museum)

Mycenaean Culture and its Links to Sun Worship

The Mycenaean civilization rose to prominence in the late Bronze Age in ancient Greece, enduring from 1750 through 1050 BC. The advanced culture of the Mycenaeans was the first of its type to appear in the region, and is known from the archaeological record for its elaborate palaces, complex urban planning, unique artistic achievements, and the development of its own writing system.

Despite their association with the lands of mainland Greece, the Mycenaeans did not originate there.

“We know that the Mycenaeans came from the north,” Professor Czebreszuk said. “From what north, no one knows for sure. It is most often said that this north was Macedonia and Epirus, those areas that are within the borders of modern Greece.”

Wherever they migrated from, it seems they brought amber with them. Amber is a golden-colored gemstone made from fossilized tree resin, and its beauty has attracted the attention of rock collectors and jewelry makers since the Neolithic period (10,000 to 2,000 BC).

It was apparently associated with Sun worship and spirituality in some societies, and Professor Czebreszuk believes the Mycenaeans must have valued amber primarily as a symbol of the Earth’s solar companion.

He states:

“Already in the Neolithic in Central Europe, we have disc-shaped artifacts with radial decorations that clearly point to the Sun. Amber probably also comes to the south as a solar material. And the Sun is power, it is the most important celestial body, so it is also a heavenly body, it is also heaven. And all these symbols together gather into one beam, which made it such an important raw material.”

Wearing an amber necklace or other type of jewelry would have signified that a person was blessed by the Sun, which would have acted as a justification for their aristocratic status in the class-conscious Mycenaean society.

In Bronze Age societies in general, the elites thought of themselves as a separate and distinct group that had more in common with elites in other societies than they did with average citizens in their own. Consequently, Professor Czebreszuk explains, they remained in contact with each other and traded with each other over long distances. Amber would have been exchanged across this trade network, ensuring that elites would have exclusive access to this coveted gemstone.

An amber gemstone being held up in the sunlight. (Björn Wylezich/Adobe Stock)

The Source of the Mycenaean Amber is Revealed

Analysis of the golden gemstones used by the Mycenaean elite has shown that most of it is Baltic amber, which is also known as succinite.

“It had a large distribution: it is known from the British Isles to Ukraine, but the main deposits that were known in prehistory are those on the Baltic Sea and the North Sea,” Professor Czebreszuk said. “Actually, the largest that we know, but were also already known, for example, in the Roman period, are the deposits on the Lower Vistula, the Gulf of Gdańsk. To this day, Gdańsk is the center of amber. And it was already the center two thousand years ago, [and] probably earlier.”

Further research into the characteristics of the amber may help determine not just where the stones came from, but where they were made into jewelry.

“There were different production traditions in different places. On this basis, we can also determine where it came from, where the workshop was and what the knowledge of this manufacturer was,” the director of the Polish Archaeological Institute of Athens explained. “And, of course, there is also the dimension of studying fossil resin, i.e. whether it is succinite or something else, because there are countless fossil resins.”

The Tears of the Gods

The link between the power of the Sun and amber is verified in ancient Greek mythology. According to legend, when the son of the solar god Helios, whose name was Phaëton, died, his sisters were so distraught that they transformed into poplar trees. In this form they shed golden tears over the loss of their sibling, and it was these tears that ultimately turned into amber.

Given this legend, it is easy to see why elite Mycenaeans would have coveted amber. Possessing it and wearing it would have signaled their connection with the gods in a culture that worshipped the Sun.

Top image: Natural amber. A piece of yellow transparent natural amber on large piece of dark stoned wood.   Source: lukjonis/Adobe Stock

By Nathan Falde

Scientists in Siberia unearthed the deep-frozen, mummified remains of a juvenile woolly rhinoceros from the permafrost, dated to over 32,000 years ago! The carcass of this pre-historic creature, found in the ice-covered banks of the Tirekhtyakh River in Russia’s Sakha Republic, provides crucial insights into the species that once roamed the Arctic tundra during the last Ice Age. The well-preserved right side of the young woolly rhino, who died at the age of 4, still bears patches of skin and fur in amazing condition.

32,000-year-old well preserved woolly rhinoceros found in Tirekhtyakh River in Russia’s Sakha Republic. (Boeskorov, G.G. et al./Doklady Earth Sciences)

Much Predated Upon: Woolly Rhinos

The left side of the carcass, on the other hand, reveals significant damage, with clear signs that predators had fed on it, either shortly before or after its death. Further analysis of the remains uncovered traces of tiny crustaceans embedded in the rhino’s fur, suggesting that the animal perished in a shallow pool of water.

“From the upper part of the thigh to the level of the shoulder blade, [the carcass] is severely destroyed. The internal cavity of the body is exposed, and most of the intestines are missing… from the mangled carcass, it is obvious that the left side of the mummy was eaten by predators,” researchers from the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Sakha wrote in a study documenting the carcass, published in the journal  Doklady Earth Sciences.

Thirty-thousand-year-old drawings include woolly rhinos in the Chauvet-Pont-d’Arc Cave in France. (Patilpv25/CC BY-SA 4.0)

Woolly rhinos ( Coelodonta antiquitatis), like the one uncovered in Siberia, were massive herbivores that thrived between 460,000 and 12,000 years ago, coexisting with other megafauna like the woolly mammoth ( Mammuthus primigenius). They were well-adapted to the cold, sporting thick coats of shaggy fur that helped them survive in the harsh climates of the mammoth steppe ecosystem. Despite their importance in Ice Age ecosystems, much remains unknown about woolly rhinos.

The preserved skin, hair, and soft tissues of mummified woolly rhinoceros specimens provide vital clues that enhance and extend the understanding gained from centuries of studying only their bones. While it’s well-established that these animals were highly adapted to the cold, dry environments of the Ice Age, the preserved specimens offer more direct evidence of the nature of these adaptations. In particular, the thickness of their skin and the density of their fur give a clearer picture of how they withstood the extreme Arctic conditions.

Abyisky Rhinoceros: An Invaluable Species Holding Valuable DNA

Excavated in August 2020, the juvenile rhino was named the “Abyisky rhinoceros” after the local district where it was found. The specimen currently resides in the freezer of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Sakha, where researchers have conducted detailed analyses. The scientists temporarily thawed the carcass to collect samples of skin, fur, and soft tissue, invaluable for further genetic and biological studies.

The Abyisky rhinoceros was estimated to be around 4 to 4.5 years old at the time of its death, based on the size of its teeth and a horn fragment that measured 9.4 inches (24 cm) in length. The horn also contained dark patches, which scientists believe correspond to the animal’s age, marking approximately three to four years of life. Standing 4.3 feet (130 cm) tall at the shoulder, the young rhino had not yet reached sexual maturity, reports Live Science.

One of the more striking aspects of this discovery is the coloration of the rhino’s fur. The Abyisky rhinoceros had darker fur compared to another woolly rhino calf, “Sasha,” discovered in 2014, also in the same region. Sasha, thought to be around 10,000 years old, was covered in fine, almost blond hair, while adult woolly rhinos typically had coarser, dark brown fur. This variance in fur color and texture might indicate changes in the species’ development or seasonal adaptations, which scientists are keen to explore further.

“The fur of the Abyisky rhinoceros has a uniform light brown color due to the combination of white, beige, and brown hair,” the researchers wrote in the study. “The coat is darker on the ears and feet and lighter on the back, belly, and hind legs.”

Another unusual feature of the Abyisky rhinoceros is the presence of a 5-inch-high (13 cm) hump on its back, filled with a fatty mass. Such humps, though common in other Arctic animals like camels, have never been documented in woolly rhinoceros specimens until now. This hump likely served as a reserve of fat, allowing the rhino to store energy and better endure the harsh, resource-scarce conditions of its Ice Age habitat, reports CNN.

The research on the Abyisky woolly rhinoceros is far from complete. According to study leader Albert Protopopov, certain sections of the carcass, particularly areas that might house internal organs like the stomach, have yet to be thoroughly examined. These organs could provide insights into the animal’s diet, the local vegetation, and the broader environment it inhabited.

Top image: An artist’s rendition of a prehistoric woolly rhinoceros. Source: Benjamin Langlois/CC BY-SA 4.0 (Inset; Boeskorov, G.G. et al./Doklady Earth Sciences)

By Sahir Pandey

By James L. Fitzsimmons/The Conversation

The ancient Maya believed that everything in the universe, from the natural world to everyday experiences, was part of a single, powerful spiritual force. They were not polytheists who worshipped distinct gods but pantheists who believed that various gods were just manifestations of that force.

Some of the best evidence for this comes from the behavior of two of the most powerful beings of the Maya world: The first is a creator god whose name is still spoken by millions of people every fall – Huracán, or “Hurricane.” The second is a god of lightning, K’awiil, from the early first millennium AD.

As a scholar of the Indigenous religions of the Americas, I recognize that these beings, though separated by over 1,000 years, are related and can teach us something about our relationship to the natural world.

Huracán, the ‘Heart of Sky’

Huracán was once a god of the K’iche’, one of the Maya peoples who today live in the southern highlands of Guatemala. He was one of the main characters of the Popol Vuh, a religious text from the 16th century. His name probably originated in the Caribbean, where other cultures used it to describe the destructive power of storms.

The K’iche’ associated Huracán, which means “one leg” in the K’iche’ language, with weather. He was also their primary god of creation and was responsible for all life on Earth, including humans.

Because of this, he was sometimes known as U K’ux K’aj, or “Heart of Sky.” In the K’iche’ language, k’ux was not only the heart but also the spark of life, the source of all thought and imagination.

Yet, Huracán was not perfect. He made mistakes and occasionally destroyed his creations. He was also a jealous god who damaged humans so they would not be his equal. In one such episode, he is believed to have clouded their vision, thus preventing them from being able to see the universe as he saw it.

Huracán was one being who existed as three distinct persons: Thunderbolt Huracán, Youngest Thunderbolt and Sudden Thunderbolt. Each of them embodied different types of lightning, ranging from enormous bolts to small or sudden flashes of light.

Despite the fact that he was a god of lightning, there were no strict boundaries between his powers and the powers of other gods. Any of them might wield lightning, or create humanity, or destroy the Earth.

Another Storm God

The Popol Vuh implies that gods could mix and match their powers at will, but other religious texts are more explicit. One thousand years before the Popol Vuh was written, there was a different version of Huracán called K’awiil. During the first millennium, people from southern Mexico to western Honduras venerated him as a god of agriculture, lightning and royalty.

The ancient Maya god K’awiil, left, had an ax or torch in his forehead as well as a snake in place of his right leg. (K5164 from the Justin Kerr Maya archive, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, D.C./CC BY-SA 4.0)

Illustrations of K’awiil can be found everywhere on Maya pottery and sculpture. He is almost human in many depictions: He has two arms, two legs and a head. But his forehead is the spark of life – and so it usually has something that produces sparks sticking out of it, such as a flint ax or a flaming torch. And one of his legs does not end in a foot. In its place is a snake with an open mouth, from which another being often emerges.

Indeed, rulers, and even gods, once performed ceremonies to K’awiil in order to try and summon other supernatural beings. As personified lightning, he was believed to create portals to other worlds, through which ancestors and gods might travel.

Representation of Power

For the ancient Maya, lightning was raw power. It was basic to all creation and destruction. Because of this, the ancient Maya carved and painted many images of K’awiil. Scribes wrote about him as a kind of energy – as a god with “many faces,” or even as part of a triad similar to Huracán.

He was everywhere in ancient Maya art. But he was also never the focus. As raw power, he was used by others to achieve their ends.

Rain gods, for example, wielded him like an ax, creating sparks in seeds for agriculture. Conjurers summoned him, but mostly because they believed he could help them communicate with other creatures from other worlds. Rulers even carried scepters fashioned in his image during dances and processions.

Moreover, Maya artists always had K’awiil doing something or being used to make something happen. They believed that power was something you did, not something you had. Like a bolt of lightning, power was always shifting, always in motion.

An Interdependent World

Because of this, the ancient Maya thought that reality was not static but ever-changing. There were no strict boundaries between space and time, the forces of nature or the animate and inanimate worlds.

Everything was malleable and interdependent. Theoretically, anything could become anything else – and everything was potentially a living being. Rulers could ritually turn themselves into gods. Sculptures could be hacked to death. Even natural features such as mountains were believed to be alive.

These ideas – common in pantheist societies – persist today in some communities in the Americas.

They were once mainstream, however, and were a part of K’iche’ religion 1,000 years later, in the time of Huracán. One of the lessons of the Popol Vuh, told during the episode where Huracán clouds human vision, is that the human perception of reality is an illusion.

The illusion is not that different things exist. Rather it is that they exist independent from one another. Huracán, in this sense, damaged himself by damaging his creations.

Hurricane season every year should remind us that human beings are not independent from nature but part of it. And like Hurácan, when we damage nature, we damage ourselves.

Top image: An illustration of K’awiil, the Maya god of storm, on pottery.                 Source: K2970 from the Justin Kerr Maya archive, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, D.C., CC BY-SA

This article was originally published under the title ‘Centuries ago, the Maya Storm God Huracán taught that when we damage nature, we damage ourselves’ by James L. Fitzsimmons on The Conversation, and has been republished under a Creative Commons License.

Ancient Greek and Roman historians captivated their audiences with accounts of bizarre tribes dwelling on the periphery of the known world. Their customs were odd and their appearances even more fantastical. They represented the ever-present fascination with the world and its wonders. Historians like Herodotus, the Father of History, Diodorus Siculus, Pausanias, Philostratus, and Ctesias infused their narratives with observations and sensational stories, contributing to a mythic portrayal of distant lands. In his Natural History, Pliny the Elder compiled an impressive array of information on numerous exotic tribes, making him the primary source for much of what was known and further inspiring those who came after him. His work would flourish through the Middle Ages, giving new meaning to the unknown and enigmatic. With all the marvelous, imaginative, and fanciful depictions of curious tribes passed down through time, what better place to start than the beginning.    

Hairy Men and Dog-Headed Hunters 

The Atlas Mountains of Libya had long been a place of obscurity to the ancients; many awe-inspiring myths and tales originated from this rugged landscape. Venturing travelers often spoke about the strange tribes of people that roamed these rolling hills. Most, coincidentally, shared a likeness in appearance to Pan, god of the wild, or the satyr, mischievous and covered in hair. The Satyros Libys and the Aigipan Libys were feral, uninhibited men supposedly encountered by the wise, miracle worker Apollonius of Tyana and recorded by Pliny the Elder. To the west, along the Ethiopian Nile, Philostratus documented yet another of Apollonius’s adventurous trials with these strange men.

While traveling through a small Ethiopian village, Apollonius and his companions were startled by the villagers’ sudden uproar as they joined to pursue a reckless Phasma Satyros—a phantom satyr that had been terrorizing them for over ten months. He was incessantly mad for the women, having already killed two. Apollonius reassured his frightened companions and the villagers, revealing a plan to handle the satyr based on an old story about King Midas. The king had the blood of the satyr, evident in the shape of his ears. Based on advice once given by Midas’ mother on subduing a satyr, Apollonius mixed wine with water and poured it into the village’s cattle trough to intoxicate it. Following this plan, the phantom satyr drank the wine, falling asleep in a nearby cave. Later, as the group found him sleeping, Apollonius instructed the villagers to never harm the satyr; he was no longer a threat to them.

2nd century AD Roman copy of a bust of Herodotus. (GNU FDL 1.2)

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Top image: Silhouettes of African aborigines at sunset.        Source: Lazy_Bear / Adobe Stock

By Jessica Nadeau