History

The idea of venturing into the unknown, facing danger, and discovering something new has captivated people for centuries. From the great sea voyages of the Age of Discovery to the exploration of the polar regions and beyond, the exploits of famous explorers have captured public imagination. For some people, the allure of exploration is so strong that they have decided to recreate the famous journeys of historical explorers themselves.

These modern-day adventurers have taken on similar challenges, dangers, and witnessed many of the same wonders as their predecessors. In doing so, they have not only brought significant moments from history back to life, but also forged their own paths of adventure and discovery.

Elise Wortley: Retracing the Steps of Forgotten Female Explorers

Elise Wortley has traced the journeys of female explorers such as the French explorer Alexandra David-Néel, who traveled through the Himalayas; writer and poet Nan Shepherd, who trekked through the Scottish Cairngorms; and British-Italian explorer Freya Stark, who traveled through Iran’s Valley of Assassins. She takes the re-creation of those expeditions seriously – not only following in the footsteps of these remarkable women, but also wearing the clothing and using the equipment that was available to them.

Retracing Shackleton’s Epic Journey in Antarctica

In 2013, a British-Australian team of six men, led by Tim Jarvis and Barry Gray, followed Sir Ernest Shackleton’s 800-mile journey across Antarctica. Primarily using the same equipment and clothing as Shackleton’s original expedition, the team faced extreme cold, harsh winds, and treacherous terrain.

Tim Severin and the Legendary Voyage of St. Brendan

Tim Severin recreated some amazing journeys of historical figures. He retraced the travels of Marco Polo (on motorcycle) and Sinbad and Ulysses’ voyages, but his most famous trip was his 1976 voyage across the Atlantic in a replica of a 6th-century Irish leather boat, tracing the legendary voyage of St. Brendan, an Irish monk who, according to legend, sailed to America in the 6th century.

Two Men Bring Marco Polo’s Journey to Life

In 1993, Denis Belliveau and Francis O’Donnell set off on a two-year trek retracing of Marco Polo’s journey from Venice to Anatolia, Persia, India, and China. Their Silk Road travels became a 2008 PBS documentary film called  In the Footsteps of Marco Polo, in which the men traveled by foot, on horses and camels, and by jeep, boat, and train, and faced many dangerous situations, while following in the footsteps of the famous explorer.

Special Mention – Dwayne Fields, An Epic Explorer

His story may not be as old as some of the others on this list, but it’s easily one of the most inspirational. In in 2010 Fields became the first black Briton to reach the north pole. He was on an expedition commemorating the 100th anniversary of Peary and Henson’s 1908-9 expedition, which is generally considered the first to reach the geographic north pole (although a 1989 analysis suggests that Peary and Henson fell 30 miles short of their goal). Watch the video below to find out more about Fields’ amazing story which took him from Jamaica to the North Pole, and his advocacy work since then.

Discover more about these and other fascinating journeys taken by modern explorers recreating travels from the past in the article ‘Modern Adventurers Following in the Footsteps of Famous Explorers’ available in the May – June 2023 issue of Ancient Origins Magazine. Get it here!

Featured Image: Modern adventurers have retraced the expeditions of famous historical explorers. Source: Tryfonov / Adobe Stock

By Alicia McDermott

The Great Pyramid of Giza is undoubtedly one of the most well-known icons of the ancient world. But thousands of other pyramids exist, not just in Egypt, but across the entire globe, including Europe, Asia, Oceania and the Americas.  The reason why so many ancient civilizations, many of which had no contact with each other, were constructing pyramids at around the same time remains a bit of a mystery. Nevertheless, many of these impressive monuments remain as legacies of these rich, ancient cultures. Here, we look at 5 little-known pyramids from the ancient world. 

1. A Pyramid in the Heart of Rome, Italy

Rome is well known for its ancient architecture – the Colosseum, Pantheon, Trajan’s Market and the Roman Forum to name a few – but one thing it is not often associated with is pyramids. But right in the heart of Rome, sits a 2,000-year-old pyramid, measuring 30 meters (98.42 ft) along each side and 35 meters (114.82 ft) in height. You can’t miss it! Yet very few people have heard of Rome’s Pyramid of Cestius.

The Pyramid of Cestius was built along the Via Ostiensis, an important road in ancient Rome, sometime between 18 and 12 BC. While it is debatable whether the Egyptian pyramids were ever really used as tombs, the pyramid of Cestius most definitely was. Within the pyramid is a barrel-vaulted burial chamber which, according to the inscriptions on the east and west flanks of the pyramid, housed the body of a Roman politician known as Gaius Cestius Epulo, a tribune, praetor and member of the priesthood. A second inscription announces that the building of this pyramid was completed in 330 days.

The Pyramid of Cestius (Zach Maggio/CC-BY 2.0)

2. The Mysterious Pyramids of Tenerife, Canary Islands

Tenerife in the Canary Islands is well-known as a holiday destination, but many tourists visit the island unaware that there are pyramids there and an ongoing mystery. Who built the pyramids, when were they constructed, and why?

The pyramids can be found at Güímar, a town in the south of Tenerife. Built from lava stone without the use of mortar, the pyramids have caused much controversy among academics.

One study dated the pyramids to the 19th century AD, based on pottery found near the site, and said they are little more than piles of volcanic rocks that farmers had made when clearing the land. However, this has been hotly disputed.

Norwegian explorer Thor Heyerdahl argues that the pyramids were built by the Guanches, the aboriginal Berber inhabitants of the Canary Islands who migrated to the archipelago around 1,000 BC. Hayerdahl points out that the constructions are painstakingly designed with stepped levels and possible alignments made for ceremonial purposes, such as those that could have been carried out at the Summer Solstice.

In 1991, Juan Antonio Belmonte Avilés, Antonio Aparicio Juan, and César Esteban López, who were researchers from the Canary Institute of Astrophysics, demonstrated that the long sides of some of the terraces surrounding the pyramids of Güímar marked the direction of winter and summer solstices.

Heyerdahl hypothesized that the Canarian pyramids formed a temporal and geographic stopping point on voyages between ancient Egypt and the Maya civilization, initiating a controversy in which historians, archaeologists, astronomers, and those with a general interest in history have all taken part.

One of the Pyramids of Güímar. (Public Domain)

3. The Great Pyramid of Cholula, Mexico

Despite being recognized by the Guinness Book of Records as the largest pyramid in the world in terms of its volume, not many people have heard of the Great Pyramid of Cholula.

Located just outside the city of Puebla, the pyramid was dedicated to Quetzalcoatl, one of the most important deities of the Mesoamerican pantheon, and during pre-Colombian times, Cholula was a large city and the religious center of highland Mexico.

The construction of the temple began during the 2nd century BC and went through several stages before achieving its final form. Around 1100 AD, the city fell into the hands of the Toltec-Chichimecas, and the pyramid was abandoned as new temples were created.

Over the centuries, it became covered in earth and vegetation, and it was not until 1910, when authorities began the construction of a mental asylum, that the ‘natural hill’ was found to be the home of an ancient pyramid.

A section of the ruins of the Great Pyramid of Cholula, Puebla, Mexico. (Diego Delso/CC-BY-SA 3.0)

4. The Legendary 1,000ft White Pyramid of Xian, China

Scattered across an isolated, flat plain in Shaanxi Province, near the ancient capital of Xi’an, lie dozens of spectacular pyramid mounds that are little known outside China.  Mixed in with the reality of these impressive tombs, is a legend of an enormous 1,000-foot (304.8 m) white, jewel-capped pyramid that would outshine even the Great Pyramid of Giza. While some researchers believe that aerial sightings of the ‘White Pyramid of Xi’an’ correspond with the Maoling Mausoleum, tomb of Emperor Wu of Han, others maintain that the legendary pyramid is yet to be found.

Reported sightings of an enormous white pyramid in China date back more than a century to the diary entries of American travel agent and trader Fred Meyer Schroder, who spotted a giant pyramid in the distance while walking with a Buddhist monk guide in Shaanxi Province in 1912. Schroder estimated that it was at least 300 meters high (roughly 1,000 ft) with 500-meter (1640.42 ft) sides. Such dimensions would give the structure a volume ten times greater than that of the Great Pyramid in Egypt. Schroder’s Mongolian guide, Bogdo, informed him that the pyramids are at least 3,000 years old and that information about them is recorded in ancient monastic documents and is well-known in local legend.

Two more sightings by pilots occurred in the 1940s, both corroborating earlier reports of its size and features. Some believe that the White Pyramid may lie within the rugged terrain of the Qin Ling Mountains, difficult to spot among the towering mountains and deep gorges. Numerous researchers and explorers have pursued the White Pyramid of Xi’an, but none to date have been successful.

Mausoleum of Han Yang Ling near Xian, model of pyramid in der Han Yang Ling Museum (Public Domain)

5. The 5,000-Year-Old Pyramid City of Caral, Peru

The Norte Chico civilization of Supe, Peru was the first known civilization of the Americas. Their capital was the Sacred City of Caral – a 5,000-year-old metropolis complete with complex agricultural practices, rich culture, and monumental architecture, including stone and earthen platform mounds, temples, amphitheater, sunken circular plazas, residential areas and six large step pyramids.

The ancient city was first discovered in 1905 by the German archaeologist Max Uhle, but it wasn’t until the 1970s that archaeologists realized that the hills originally identified as natural formations were actually step pyramids. By the 1990s, the full extent of the great city of Caral and its six pyramids had emerged after having lain buried beneath the sand for five millennia.

Remains of the Great Pyramid of Caral. (© Christopher Kleihege/UNESCO)

While we already know of the existence of thousands of pyramids around the world, it is hypothesized that there are hundreds more that are yet to be discovered. From the dense jungles of South America and Asia to enormous mounds covered in vegetation or snow that could easily be mistaken for natural hills, the planet has not yet revealed all of the pyramids from its ancient past. 

Top image: The Great Pyramid of Caral   Source: © Christopher Kleihege/UNESCO

By April Holloway

In the heart of Alaska’s Tanana River Valley, an extraordinary discovery sheds light on the origins of the first Americans. Two infants – Sunrise Girl-Child and Dawn Twilight Girl – were unearthed at the Upward Sun River site, their remains dating back 11,500 years. Wrapped in shrouds and laid to rest with stone tools and antler tips, these children are linked to the earliest wave of settlers who crossed the Bering Land Bridge.

It Looks Like America’s First People Were Island Hoppers
Are These Tools Left by Paleolithic Travelers on the Beringia Land Bridge?

Their DNA offers a rare glimpse into a long-lost population – early Paleo-Indians known as the Beringians. Unlike modern Native American groups, the Beringians were isolated for thousands of years during the last Ice Age, trapped by glaciers on all sides. This discovery helps unravel the complex story of the first migrations into the Americas, a time when humans followed retreating ice sheets and migrating game from Siberia to Alaska, and eventually across the entire continent.

This remarkable video narrated by D.W. Graphen dives deep into this ancient mystery, exploring how the remains of Sunrise Girl-Child and Dawn Twilight Girl contribute to our understanding of human migration and the peopling of the Americas.

Top image: An illustration of the Upward Sun River camp in what is now Interior Alaska. Illustration: Illustration by Eric S. Carlson in collaboration with Ben A. Potter         Source: YouTube Screenshot

By Ancient Origins

Post as AO

The griffin is a legendary creature with the head and wings of an eagle, and the body, tail, and hind legs of a lion. As the eagle was considered the ‘king of the birds,’ and the lion the ‘king of the beasts’, the griffin was perceived as a powerful and majestic creature.  During the Persian Empire, the griffin was seen as a protector from evil, witchcraft, and slander.

Griffins in Ancient Greek Art and Mythology

Although the griffin is often seen in medieval heraldry, its origins stretch further back in time. For instance, the ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote:

“But in the north of Europe there is by far the most gold. In this matter again I cannot say with assurance how the gold is produced, but it is said that one-eyed men called Arimaspians steal it from griffins. But I do not believe this, that there are one-eyed men who have a nature otherwise the same as other men. The most outlying lands, though, as they enclose and wholly surround all the rest of the world, are likely to have those things which we think the finest and the rarest.”  (Herodotus, The Histories, 3.116)

While griffins are most common in the art and mythology of Ancient Greece, there is evidence of representations of griffins in ancient Persia and ancient Egypt dating back to as early as the 4th millennium BC. On the island of Crete in Greece, archaeologists have uncovered depictions of griffins in frescoes in the ‘Throne Room’ of the Bronze Age Palace of Knossos dating back to the 15 th century BC.

Griffin fresco in the “Throne Room”, Palace of Knossos, Crete. (CC BY-SA 3.0)

Theories of the Griffin’s Origins and Cultural Impact

Interestingly, there are various hybrid creatures that are similar to the griffin. For instance, the Lamassu was an Assyrian mythical creature that had the head of a man, a body of a lion or bull, and the wings of an eagle.

The Lamassu, a human-headed winged bull. University of Chicago Oriental Institute. Neo-Assyrian Period, c. 721-705 BC (Trjames /CC BY-SA 3.0)

Further to the east, a part-man, part-bird creature, the Garuda, served as a mount for the Hindu god Vishnu. Perhaps the fascination with such hybrid creatures is due to the fact that it allows people to combine the best characteristics of two or more creatures into one ’super creature,’ allowing meaningful symbolism to be attached to them.

Hindu god Vishnu with the Garuda. (Public Domain)

This may hold true for the griffin in the Middle Ages. In European legend of this period, it was believed that griffins mated for life, and that when one partner died, the other would live the rest of his/her life without seeking another partner (perhaps due to the fact that there weren’t many griffins around). This has led to claims that the griffin was used by the Church as a symbol against re-marriage. It is unclear, however, whether this was the actual belief, or just a modern interpretation.

Although the griffin might seem like a creature conjured from the imagination of mankind, there might actually be some truth to this creature. One theory suggests that the griffin was brought to Europe by traders travelling along the Silk Road from the Gobi Desert in Mongolia. In this desert, the fossils of a dinosaur called the  Protoceratops can be found. These bones, especially the skull, which has a bird-like beak, were exposed on the desert floor. Ancient observers may have interpreted them as proof that such a hybrid creature once lived in the desert. Yet, it has been shown that stories of the griffin have been around even before the Silk Road was developed. Perhaps it was stories about the griffin that made the traders interpret the fossils of the  Protoceratops as that of the legendary creature.

The Gryphon is the emblem and mascot of the University of Guelph, Canada. (Mduvekot/ CC BY-SA 4.0)

Regardless of its origins, the griffin has been part of human culture for a very long time and persists today, as seen in various school emblems, mascots, and even popular literature. It is likely that the griffin and other hybrid mythical creatures will continue to play a role in mankind’s imagination for a long time to come.

Top image: “Griff” Statue in the forecourt of the Farkashegyi Cemetery Budapest, 2007.   Source: Htcs/CC BY-SA 3.0

By Ḏḥwty

In addition to the 700 plus objects unearthed exactly a year ago, and along with arrowheads discovered in the last week of August, archaeologists have uncovered further evidence of the physical traces of the Battle of Malazgirt. The epic late-11th century conflict, contested between the dwindling Byzantine Empire and the Seljuks, has been a source of awe and mystery for centuries. Now, archaeologists have discovered a monumental new structure, 7 meters (23 feet) in size with a square plan containing five graves, pointing to the possibility of Seljuk martyrdom at the site.

Structure found at the site of the Battle of Manzikert, Mus, Türkiye. (Alparslan University)

Battle of Malazgirt: Changing Turkey Forever

As part of The Malazgirt Battlefield Archaeological Project, archaeologists have focused their efforts on uncovering the material evidence of the 1071 AD battle that forever changed world history. As a result of this battle, Byzantine authority declined in Anatolia and Armenia, paving the way for the gradual Turkification of Anatolia, and the eventual blossoming of the Ottoman Empire.

Turkish nationalists often allude to this battle as a legendary starting point for the Turkish nation. It took nearly four centuries for the Ottomans, who were descended from the Seljuk clans, to finally conquer what is now Istanbul. Interestingly, the Seljuks at the Battle of Manzikert were likely more culturally linked to what is modern-day Iran than to Turkey.

The project, initiated in 2020 with backing from the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, the General Directorate of Cultural Heritage and Museums, and Muş Alparslan University, involves 42 academics from various universities, all working under the guidance of the Ahlat Museum, reports Turkiye Today.

“We are conducting the first comprehensive battlefield archaeology in Türkiye to pinpoint the exact location of the Battle of Manzikert,” said Professor Dr. Adnan Cevik from Mugla Sitki Kocman University, the project’s scientific advisor. “We focus on metal objects that trace the battle and human casualties caused by the conflict. The area where we are excavating is related to human losses of the battle.”

Artifacts gathered at the Malazgirt site. (Alparslan University)

Malazgirt Battlefield Project

The second phase of the 2024 excavation has commenced, focusing on a cemetery site in the Afşin District of Malazgirt. This area is thought to have been either the “Seljuk Headquarters” or the “Seljuk Martyrdom” during the historic Battle of Manzikert.

As part of the project, archaeologists conducted a comprehensive survey across 150 square kilometers of the Malazgirt plain, utilizing geophysical scanning and exploratory methods to accurately determine the location of the battlefield.

Prof. Dr. Yunus Levent Ekinci, in conversation with Al Parslan, stated that they are examining the physical parameter contrasts such as the magnetization intensity, specific resistance, and density of the underground geological structures through surface measurements.

He said:

“With this method, we interpret the geological images we obtain from underground. On the maps we create based on this interpretation, we identify color tones that are anomalies, not fitting the geological structure of the ground. Through these studies, we have identified many grave covers.”

Arrowheads found in the Malazgirt Historical Muslim Cemetery, Malazgirt, Mus, Türkiye. (IHA)

Excavation efforts have uncovered various artifacts, including arrowheads, fragments of swords and spears, along with gold and bronze Roman coins found in the same strata. The coins bear the seal of Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes, who, following the battle, was captured and imprisoned.

Additionally, the team unearthed a cross necklace dating back to the 11th century AD, along with graves from the Seljuk period, and hundreds of metal objects related to the battle. According to Project Coordinator Dr. Oğuzhan Karaçetin, these findings are currently being prepared for exhibition in the Muş and Ahlat Museums.

Dr. Karaçetin highlighted the project’s broader goal of developing a new methodology for battlefield archaeology. He expressed confidence that the advanced scanning technologies and techniques being applied in this project will serve as valuable tools for future battlefield excavations.

Top image: Manzikert Battle, painting from Istanbul Military Museum.                 Source: Istanbul Military Museum

By Sahir Pandey

For centuries, our distant ancestors believed in a plethora of gods and goddesses, having a close relationship with the nature around them and personifying many natural occurrences. But there were some civilizations that moved past that polytheistic belief. They believed that there is only one God – a singular deity above all else. This was known as monotheism, and the Near East is one of its earliest cradles. So, what compelled those ancient cultures to step away from the polytheistic peoples that surrounded them? How did they structure their lives to be centered on a nuanced belief that there is a singular deity?

Near East, The Cradle of Change

The ancient Near East, often regarded as the cradle of civilization, witnessed the development of some of the most influential and enduring religious systems in human history. It was here that the earliest known examples of polytheistic worship – where societies believed in and venerated multiple gods – flourished. However, among these complex belief systems emerged a revolutionary idea: monotheism, the belief in a single, all-powerful deity. This transition from polytheism to monotheism did not happen in a vacuum. Instead, it was the product of cultural, political, and theological shifts over millennia. The rise of monotheism, particularly through the faith of the Israelites and later reinforced by Zoroastrianism and early Christianity, altered the religious landscape of the Near East and set the stage for the Abrahamic religions that dominate the world today.

Of course, understanding the rise of monotheism requires an exploration of the socio-political structures of the ancient Near East, the evolution of religious thought within specific communities, and the broader regional interactions that helped shape these beliefs. From the initial inklings of monotheistic concepts in ancient Mesopotamian and Egyptian theology to the development of ethical monotheism in ancient Israel, the journey was complex, multifaceted, and filled with both continuity and transformation.

A depiction of Marduk. (Osama Shuukir Muhammed Amin FRCP(Glasg) / CC BY-SA 4.0)

Read more…

Top image: AI representation of Genesis 1:1: “In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.”           Source: Faith Stock / Adobe Stock

By Aleksa Vučković

For the first time in 3,500 years, scientists have revealed a likeness of the face of Amenhotep I, the Egyptian pharaoh who founded the Valley of the Kings. This was made possible through a combination of modern technology and historical expertise, offering an intimate glimpse into the appearance of a ruler who ushered in one of ancient Egypt’s golden ages.

The Pharaoh Behind the Valley of the Kings

Amenhotep I, the second ruler of Egypt’s 18th Dynasty, reigned from around 1526 to 1506 BC. Known for his reign of peace and prosperity, he followed in the footsteps of his father, Ahmose I, who expelled the Hyksos invaders and reunited Egypt.

Amenhotep I’s reign laid the groundwork for the New Kingdom’s rise to power, and he is credited with establishing the Valley of the Kings as the final resting place for pharaohs and nobles of this era, writes the Daily Mail.

Not only was Amenhotep I revered for his military achievements, which included campaigns in Libya and northern Sudan, but he also oversaw significant religious and architectural projects, earning the devotion of his people.

After his death at around 35 years of age, Amenhotep I was worshipped as a god, and his mummified body was meticulously preserved.

Amenhotep I’s outer sarcophagus and his head and body after scanning inside. (S. Saleem and Z. Hawass / Frontiers in Medicine)

Reconstructing the Pharaoh’s Face

Once again, Brazilian 3D designer Cicero Moraes, who specializes in forensic facial reconstruction, spearheaded the project to digitally recreate the face of Amenhotep I. Using cutting-edge techniques, Moraes combined data from various sources, including computed tomography (CT) scans of the pharaoh’s skull taken in 2021. This work was part of a broader project led by paleo-radiologist Sahar N. Saleem of the University of Cairo and renowned Egyptologist Zahi Hawass, who virtually “unwrapped” Amenhotep’s mummy using advanced CT scanning.

The CT scans revealed important details about the pharaoh’s physical appearance, including his skeletal structure and some preserved internal organs like his heart and brain. These scans also confirmed that Amenhotep I stood about 5 feet 6 inches (1.67 meters) tall and had well-preserved teeth.

Although the scans did not determine a cause of death, they suggested that his body suffered postmortem damage, likely caused by tomb robbers or embalmers who rewrapped his mummy centuries after his burial.

Using the skull scans as a foundation, Moraes applied various reconstruction techniques. One method involved placing soft tissue thickness markers across the skull, while another involved “anatomical deformation,” adjusting a digital donor’s head until it matched the contours of Amenhotep’s skull.

The final reconstruction was a composite, blending these techniques with historical knowledge of Egyptian royalty.

The face of Amenhotep, as reconstructed by Cicero Moraes and his team. (© Cicero Moraes)

Unveiling the Pharaoh’s Real Face

The face Moraes revealed deviated from traditional depictions of Amenhotep I in statues and artwork. One noticeable difference was the pharaoh’s overbite, or retrognathism, a feature not typically represented in the statues of Amenhotep I or other Egyptian rulers

 “Many mummies, such as Amenhotep I, show an overbite, but this is generally not reflected in a compatible way in the statues,” Moraes explained.

While the reconstructed face matched the statues in certain areas, such as the nose, the overall facial structure was more gracile in the forehead and more projected in the chin area.

Moraes’s work, supplemented by the findings of archaeologist Michael Habicht from Flinders University, offers the most realistic depiction of Amenhotep I to date. This digital reconstruction brings the pharaoh’s face to life, allowing modern audiences to see the man who once ruled a powerful and prosperous Egypt.

Amenhotep I: The Pharaoh Who Ushered in a Golden Age

Amenhotep I’s reign marked a turning point in ancient Egyptian history. Following the successful reunification of Egypt by his father Ahmose I, Amenhotep I consolidated the kingdom’s power, leading Egypt into a period of peace and growth. His religious and architectural initiatives, including the construction of temples and monuments, left a lasting impact on the cultural and spiritual life of Egypt.

One of his most significant contributions was the founding of the Valley of the Kings, which became the burial site for almost all the pharaohs of the 18th, 19th, and 20th dynasties. His own mummy was found among the first to be buried there, though it was moved to a hidden cache in the 11th century BC to protect it from tomb robbers.

Amenhotep I was deified after his death, a rare honor for an Egyptian pharaoh. He was worshipped alongside his mother, Ahmose-Nefertari, and his cult persisted well into the New Kingdom. His name, meaning “Amun is satisfied,” reflects his close relationship with the god Amun, and his reign is remembered as a time of cultural flourishing and religious devotion.

A Collaborative Effort in Rediscovering the Past

The digital reconstruction of Amenhotep I’s face is the culmination of years of work by Egyptologists, radiologists, and designers, showcasing how modern technology can breathe new life into ancient history.

“This work was not done just by us, but by all those who studied and study ancient Egypt seriously, always sharing information,” Moraes said, highlighting the collaborative nature of this groundbreaking project.

See more of the exceptional work of Cicero Moraes in the regular feature ‘Faces of History’ in the Ancient Origins Magazine.

Top image: Left; The full facial reconstruction of pharaoh Amenhotep I. Right; Digital reconstruction. Source: Left; Frontiers in Medicine/ Right; Cicero Moraes

By Gary Manners

From his early days as an animator, Walt Disney presented a sanitized and nostalgic view of America.

Mickey Mouse represented the “everyman,” while the animators at Disney’s namesake company drew a largely optimistic portrait of the United States, first in the studio’s animated films and later at its theme parks.

Anyone who has walked down Disneyland’s Main Street, USA; witnessed the Magic Kingdom’s Hall of Presidents; or visited Epcot’s American Adventure can see how Disney strives to present an uncomplicated, uncritical view of the nation and its leaders.

In 1984, Michael Eisner became the company’s CEO. He was credited with revitalizing Disney’s brand by putting out hit animated features like Beauty and the Beast and The Little Mermaid, and spearheading theme parks such as Disney-MGM Studios (now known as Hollywood Studios) and Disneyland Paris.

A visit to Virginia’s Colonial Williamsburg in the early 1990s inspired Eisner’s next venture: a theme park based on U.S. history that would be built outside of Washington, D.C.

Disney quietly started purchasing real estate in Northern Virginia. The land acquisitions became public knowledge only a few days before the announcement of the theme park, which was aptly named Disney’s America, in November 1993.

The news was largely welcomed by politicians. Eisner had already gained the support of the state’s outgoing and incoming governors, along with the Virginia Commission on Population Growth and Development. The plan was to build the park in Haymarket, Virginia, a small, wealthy area southwest of Washington, less than five miles from Manassas National Battlefield Park, the site of two major Civil War battles.

History isn’t so simple

Although Disney had diligently worked to consolidate support ahead of the announcement, signs of conflict emerged during the first press conference, which featured Bob Weis, a Disney vice president who had helped oversee the planning of several theme parks.

“This is not a Pollyanna view of America,” Weis told the group of assembled reporters. “We want to make you a Civil War soldier. We want to make you feel what it was like to be a slave or what it was like to escape through the Underground Railroad.”

Questions over how Disney would tell the complex—often discriminatory—history of the nation spurred a group of historians led by David McCullough to lodge their concerns: How would Disney construct its narrative of the U.S.? And how would the park affect Manassas, one of the most important Civil War battle sites?

Abandoned – Disney’s America

According to the original plans and brochures, Disney’s America was supposed to contain nine sections: a Colonial-era Presidents’ Square, an Indigenous village, a replica of the Ellis Island building, a factory town from the Industrial Revolution, a Civil War fort, a state fair, a mid-19th-century commerce hub, a World War II-era battlefield and a Great Depression-era family farm.

On the surface, these themed areas seemed fitting. You could easily see them as exhibitions at the Smithsonian Institution. But issues emerged when people took into account that this was still a Disney theme park where entertaining guests and making money would likely take precedence over historical accuracy and contemporary sensitivities and sensibilities.

The story of immigration, for example, would have been told through the musical-comedy stylings of Kermit the Frog and the other Muppets.

Observers also raised concerns over how Disney would handle exploitative and violent chapters in American history, including the enslavement of Africans and the genocide of Indigenous populations, the latter of which was connected to the company’s forthcoming 1995 release of Pocahontas. Historians later highlighted the film’s distorted version of events, and it isn’t far-fetched to imagine rides or attractions based on those same misrepresentations at Disney’s America.

Mickey Mouse goes to Washington

Even as plans came together for Disney, criticism began to mount.

Disney issued an ultimatum to the Virginia legislature to improve infrastructure surrounding the site, threatening to abandon the project if the General Assembly failed to approve a $150 million improvement package on the last day of its legislative session in March 1994.

In June, the U.S. House of Representatives introduced a resolution opposing the park, and a subcommittee of the U.S. Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources held a hearing regarding the proposed project’s environmental impact.

The now-infamous hearing featured discussions regarding sewage, traffic and lodging, and it even saw Colorado Senator Ben Nighthorse Campbell place a Mickey Mouse hat on the lectern in a show of support.

As criticism mounted, Disney decided to shift its approach. In the summer of 1994, it renamed the project Disney’s American Celebration.

Instead of highlighting periods or events in American history, the new concept would focus more on specific themes like Democracy, Work, Family and Generations, Streets of America, and the Land.

Many of the attractions featured in these areas would have resembled offerings already in Disney parks. For example, Generations would have been similar to the Magic Kingdom’s Carousel of Progress, while the Land would share its name with a pavilion at Epcot.

Carousel of Progress- Magic Kingdom POV 4K

The revamp also would have opened up more opportunities for sponsorship. The Work section of the park would have included virtual factory tours of popular brands such as Apple or Crayola, while Streets of America would have featured cuisine from around the country, similar to Downtown Disney, which later appeared at both Disney World and Disneyland.

It all falls apart

On September 28, 1994, Disney abruptly announced that the company was going to abandon its plans for a history-themed park.

Although criticism from historians was a factor, executives also had concerns about the park’s profitability in colder months. The company faced mounting debt from its Paris theme park and uncertain leadership after the death of senior executive Frank Wells in a helicopter crash in April 1994. Eisner, meanwhile, had undergone bypass surgery in July 1994.

Many of the attractions that were planned for the Virginia site eventually found their way into other Disney parks, particularly Disney California Adventure in Anaheim.

Disney, both under Walt Disney’s leadership and after his death in 1966, has long leveraged patriotism for the sake of its media content and park experiences. From Mickey Mouse to the Hall of Presidents, a nostalgic, linear and uncomplicated view of American progress has been foundational to the Disney experience.

But an entire park dedicated to this approach—just down the road from a real battlefield integral to the bloodiest war in U.S. history—proved to be too much for historians and other critics to ignore.

This article is republished from the Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Jared Bahir Browsh is a media and popular culture scholar at the University of Colorado Boulder.

No conqueror is ever merciful. By rights of conquest, mercy is seldom shown to those being conquered. After all, it was long known in history that those who fear a new ruler will most often obey him as well. William the Conqueror, the Norman invader of England, knew this all too well when he began his devastating campaign to subdue the English north. The last step on the full reign over England, the north had to be captured swiftly and decisively. And it is because of this that William conducted the Harrying of the North, where brutality, destruction, and utter devastation secured him both the victory and the obedience of his new subjects.

The Harrying of the North and the Stain on William’s Rule

William the Conqueror, or “the Bastard” as he was also known, was a seasoned ruler by the time he came to England. A descendant of the Viking chieftain Rollo, who settled in French Normandy and became its Duke, William had the same warlike nature as his Norse predecessors.

William himself was the Duke of Normandy and the leader of the Normans, a distinct cultural group within France that emerged from the Vikings who settled there in the past. When he came to inherit the ducal title in 1035 AD, William had to fight for it. For nearly 30 years he struggled with his rivals and enemies, fighting off rebellions and quelling disorder amongst his vassals. But by 1060 AD, his reign over the Duchy of Normandy was firm. And that meant that he could set his sights on a bigger prize.

William is depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry during the Battle of Hastings, lifting his helmet to show that he is still alive. (Public Domain)

At that time, Anglo-Saxon England was in a perilous state. In 1066 AD, its King, Edward the Confessor died, leaving no direct heirs. The throne was vacant, and the rule over England was taken up by Harold Godwinson, the brother-in-law of the late King. But William the Conqueror also had a claim to the throne. And that is why he did not hesitate. He mustered his seasoned Norman warriors, who were at the time the finest military in Medieval Europe. And with this vast army he sailed across the channel and invaded England in that same year. Weakened and fighting on two fronts, Harold Godwinson stood no chance. William’s victory was swift and decisive, and most of England quickly became a new Norman territory.

The North, however, remained an obstacle. The last remaining power-figures of the Anglo-Saxons rallied around Edgar Ætheling, the very last member of the noble house of Wessex. His presence was a threat for William’s rule, as the disaffected nobles could easily flock to him and raise a revolt. At first, however, overwhelmed by the unstoppable advance of the Normans, Edgar and his subjects formally surrendered to William. But by 1069, this was nothing more than a formality. The remaining forces of the Danes, the Northumbrians, and the Anglo-Scandinavians all raised several rebellions and delayed Norman progress. And as they refused to meet William in open battle, he opted to play a move of utter devastation. He wanted to harry the north.

Utter Destruction of the Land

In 1069 AD, William the Conqueror, the new ruler of England, set upon a new campaign. He traveled north and spent the winter in York. The city was before that possessed by a rebel army, which fled when they heard of his approach. The Danes, which were part of that army, decided to enter negotiations. After being paid a substantial sum by the Normans, the Danes decided to call it a day, and went to their ships, sailing home to Denmark.

This only left the final opposing factions, the frail remnants of the Anglo-Saxon state that was so utterly defeated by William. But since these rebels knew that they would be decisively defeated if they met William in open battle, they repeatedly avoided this. So, William employed a strategy that would cut off their food sources, and any option of support.

It was an efficient method – but all too brutal, as it involved the devastation of the crops, the villages, and innocent populace. And the Normans didn’t hesitate. This campaign, which lasted from the winter of 1069-1070, was so brutal that it shocked everyone. A near-contemporary Norman chronicler, Vitalis, wrote about it in the 12 th century:

“The King (William) stopped at nothing to hunt his enemies. He cut down many people and destroyed homes and land. Nowhere else had he shown such cruelty. This made a real change. To his shame, William made no effort to control his fury, punishing the innocent with the guilty. He ordered that crops and herds; tools and food be burned to ashes. More than 100,000 people perished of starvation. I have often praised William in this book, but I can say nothing good about this brutal slaughter. God will punish him.”

Vitalis, Ordericus: The Ecclesiastical history of England and Normandy. Vol. 2 Bk 4. (1854) Henry G. Bohn.

As he went on the march with his army, William ordered the harrying of the lands on both sides of his route, north of the River Aire. The Norman warriors showed deadly efficiency. They burned all crops to the ground; destroyed homes and granaries; burned entire villages and hamlets; killed rebels and civilians alike; and forced many people into exile and hiding. And with the majority of the crops now gone in this territory, starvation ensued. In the period following this brutal action, many civilians perished from starvation. Modern estimates suggest that between 100,000 and 150,000 people died as a result.

Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry showing the Normans provisioning armor and wine for the invasion of England. (Public Domain)

An Early Form of Genocide?

In modern historiography, people often overlook the scale and the effect of this devastating campaign. Marching from York, the Norman army had the whole of the North of England laid out for plunder and destruction. It is an enormous territory and a fertile breadbasket of the region. The army spread out over this great territory and laid everything to waste. The result was nothing short of a catastrophe. The famine that ensued was so terrible that many contemporary historians were appalled by it. In modern times, it has been dubbed a genocide. Medieval writers, such as Florence of Worcester, wrote:

“[King William] assembled an army, and hastened into Northumbria, giving way to his resentment; and spent the whole winter in laying waste the country, slaughtering the inhabitants, and inflicting every sort of evil, without cessation. A severe famine prevailed in most parts of the Kingdom, chiefly in Northumbria. Men were driven to feed on the flesh of horses, dogs, cats, and even human beings.”

Florence of Worcester: Forester, Thomas (ed.). The Chronicle of Florence of Worcester. Translated by Forester, Thomas. (1854).   Henry G. Bohn.

This historian confirms that the effects of the famine were so great that even cannibalism appeared in the countryside. Another chronicler from the same time confirms this:

“… so great a famine prevailed that men, compelled by hunger, devoured human flesh, that of horses, dogs, and cats, and whatever custom abhors; others sold themselves to perpetual slavery, so that they might in any way preserve their wretched existence.”

Symeon of Durham: The Historical works of Simeon of Durham. The Church Historians of England. Vol. III Part II. Translated by Joseph Stevenson. (1855). London: Seeleys.

Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry whose text shows William supplying weapons to Harold during Harold’s trip to the continent in 1064. (Public Domain)

Depopulation, Devastation, Devaluation

The Harrying of the North had the desired effect – it rendered the rebel force nearly non-existent. William appointed new leaders in the north, chiefly a new Earl of Northumbria, from amongst his own nobles. He also granted many lands and estates to his trusted vassals, but these lands were now largely deserted and scorched. Those that survived the harrying fled, mostly further north, to the lowlands of Scotland. Some fled south as well, as far as Worcestershire. This means that many of the lands in the region that were granted were in essence of little value, as it would be years before things would once again go back to normal.

The devastation was not only bad for the people, but for the economy as well. Even some 16 years after the harrying, it was reported that many parts of the north were still deserted and wasted. The list of records compiled in the Domesday Book in 1086 show us that many of the villages and manors in this region have a note beside them – wasteas est – meaning “it is wasted”. Roughly around 66% of all the villages in the area were laid waste, even so long after the campaign. Of course, all this resulted in a drastic decline in land prices, which reflected on other parts of the medieval English economy.

Nevertheless, William’s campaign was a success. The lands were subdued, and new Norman lords were appointed to rule them. But efforts still had to be made to repopulate the land and once more return it to the normal state. Records from the time show that Norman landowners sought to bring in new settlers to live on the land and work the fields. Nobles were renting land to any men who showed loyalty. What is more, the Normans and their culture were reserved mostly for the ruling class. This meant that the English people were still allowed to live on their traditional lands and to cultivate their culture as previously, as long as they remained loyal to their overlords.

Norman conquest of the Kingdom of England by William the Conqueror (WorldHistory)

Fear and Obedience

History of powerful kingdoms was seldom peaceful and without bloodshed. And when it comes to Medieval England, this is certainly true. From the ravaging Vikings to the Danes and the Normans – the land suffered. And it was always the common peasant that suffered and had to work the land for another’s use. In the case of the Harrying of the North, it was the sad case that so many innocent civilians suffered as a result, when the target were the rebel armies.

But even so, many modern historians suggest that the scale of the harrying was smaller than it is suggested from medieval sources. Some say that William could not have commanded a large enough army to harry such vast territories, while others say that the figure of 100,000 dead civilians is too high. But whatever the case is, William succeeded in his mission. The folk feared his wrath, and as a result – obeyed him.

Top image: Normans burned land and villages, portrayed here in AI generation, to illustrate Harrying of the North.                Source: Public Domain

By Aleksa Vučković

References
Abbot, J. 2012. History of William the Conqueror. Skyhorse Publishing.

Douglas, D. C. 1964. William the Conqueror: The Norman Impact Upon England. University of California Press.

Florence of Worcester 1854. Forester, Thomas (ed.). The Chronicle of Florence of Worcester. Translated by Forester, Thomas. Henry G. Bohn.

Morris, M. 2022. The Norman Conquest: The Battle of Hastings and the Fall of Anglo-Saxon England. Simon and Schuster.

Symeon of Durham (1855). The Historical works of Simeon of Durham. The Church Historians of England. Vol. III Part II. Translated by Joseph Stevenson. London: Seeleys.

Vitalis, O. 1853. The Ecclesiastical history of England and Normandy. Vol. 2 Bk 4. Henry G. Bohn.