History

Cyprus, with its far-reaching and often turbulent history, was always a dream come true for archaeologists and scholars alike. But one chance discovery made in 1929 would give everyone the find of a lifetime. These were the Agia Eirini terracotta sculptures – a fascinating glimpse into the artistic and religious practices of Bronze Age Cyprus.

This collection of small, hand-crafted figurines is primarily associated with the Bronze Age civilization of the broader Greek region and reflects the blend of religious, cultural, and artistic influences that spread across the Aegean during this period. These artifacts, which were found at a sanctuary in the ancient site of Agia Eirini, offer invaluable insight into the ritual life of the time, making them a key subject for both archaeologists and historians.

The Magnificent Terracotta Sculptures of Agia Eirini

The site of Agia Eirini on the northern coast of Cyprus was an important settlement during the Bronze Age, with its prominence reaching a peak between 2000 and 1500 BC. Cyprus was ideally located for trade and cultural exchange, particularly between the Minoan civilization of Crete and the Mycenaean culture of mainland Greece. The discovery of the terracotta sculptures at Agia Eirini occurred during excavations led by Swedish archaeologists in the mid-20th century, with the site being recognized as a significant religious and cultural center.

The sculptures were found in what appeared to be a shrine or sanctuary, suggesting that they held religious or votive significance. This site is notable for the vast array of artifacts unearthed, ranging from pottery to metal objects, but the terracotta figurines stand out due to their symbolic value and artistic craftsmanship.

These sculptures were most likely used in religious rituals, as they were found in a sanctuary setting. During the Bronze Age, such figurines were commonly used as votive offerings in shrines, temples, or domestic altars. The figurines often depict human figures, animals, or hybrid creatures that may have represented deities, worshippers, or symbolic animals associated with the divine. In this context, they could have been left by worshippers as offerings to the gods, asking for favors such as fertility, protection, or good fortune.

From the excavations of the Swedish Cyprus Expedition. (John Lindros/CC0)

The figures are often simplistic in design, with human figures typically shown standing, arms raised or outstretched, a common posture found in Minoan religious art. This gesture is often interpreted as a sign of worship or supplication, indicating the figure’s participation in some form of ritual activity. It is also possible that some of the figurines represented deities themselves, although their modest size and relatively crude craftsmanship suggest they were not intended as monumental depictions of gods but rather as humble representations for personal or communal worship. Besides this, they were found arranged in a semi-circle, resembling a theater of sorts.

An Ancient Offering

The craftsmanship of the Agia Eirini terracotta sculptures is both distinctive and reflective of broader Aegean artistic traditions. They are made of local clay and are usually small in size, ranging from a few inches to around a foot in height, while there are a few figures that are human-sized. The figures are molded by hand, with some details incised into the clay before it was fired in a kiln. While many of the figurines are rather rudimentary in terms of detail, they possess a certain charm and expressiveness that speaks to the skill of the artisans who made them.

Terracotta centaur figurine with male genital organs and female breasts. Agia Eirini. Can be seen at Medelhavsmuseet, Stockholm. (Ove Kaneberg/CC BY 4.0)

In terms of style, the figures are characterized by simple geometric forms, with the human figures often having exaggerated features such as long necks or stylized heads. This geometric abstraction is a hallmark of early Aegean art, contrasting with the more naturalistic styles seen in later periods of Greek sculpture. The simplicity of the figures could suggest that they were not meant to be exact representations, but rather symbolic forms used to convey spiritual or religious concepts.

Some of the figures from Agia Eirini also depict animals, particularly bulls, which were a central symbol in Minoan religion. The bull was associated with strength, fertility, and the worship of a powerful male deity. Animal figurines like these were likely used in rituals connected to agricultural fertility, as many ancient cultures viewed animals as intermediaries between humans and the divine.

Three terracotta bulls from Agia Eirini. Can be seen at Medelhavsmuseet, Stockholm. (Public Domain)

Cyprus in the Archeological Spotlight

The Agia Eirini terracotta sculptures are significant not only because of their religious connotations but also because they reveal much about the cultural interactions in the Bronze Age Aegean world. The island of Cyprus, as a crossroads for trade and cultural exchange, was influenced by both the Minoan civilization of Crete and the emerging Mycenaean civilization on mainland Greece. The terracotta sculptures reflect this blend of influences, showing artistic elements that are common in both Minoan and Mycenaean art, such as the stylized human figures and the emphasis on religious imagery.

Furthermore, the discovery of these sculptures in a sanctuary setting suggests that Agia Eirini was a center of religious activity, possibly serving both local inhabitants and visitors from other parts of the Aegean. The presence of votive offerings like these figurines highlights the importance of religion in the daily lives of Bronze Age peoples, as well as the role that ritual played in maintaining social and cultural cohesion.

Archaeologically, the terracotta figurines from Agia Eirini are important because they provide material evidence for the religious practices of a relatively understudied region of the Aegean. While the Minoan civilization is often associated with Crete, discoveries like those at Agia Eirini demonstrate that Minoan religious and cultural influences extended beyond the island, reaching other parts of the Aegean world.

A Millennia of Religious Worship

These stunning sculptures are nothing short of epic and were often compared to the famed Chinese terracotta army. And it is these simple yet evocative figurines that provide crucial evidence of the ritual practices that permeated the everyday lives of the people who inhabited Cyprus. Through their study, we gain not only a deeper understanding of the religious beliefs of the time but also insights into the broader cultural exchanges that shaped the development of early Aegean civilizations.

As artifacts, they continue to be of significant interest to archaeologists, historians, and art historians alike, serving as a tangible link to the ancient world. The terracotta sculptures from Agia Eirini remain a testament to the spiritual and artistic endeavors of Bronze Age societies and remind us of the enduring human desire to connect with the divine through art and ritual.

Top image: Photograph from one of the Cyprus Exhibitions at Medelhavsmuseet with the terracotta sculptures and the betyl (stone) from Agia Eirini.                     Source: Margareta Sjöblom/CC BY 4.0

By Aleksa Vučković

By Wray Vamplew/The Conversation

In the trailer for Ridley Scott’s hotly anticipated sequel to Gladiator (2000), a new gladiator (played by Paul Mescal) goes to battle in “the greatest temple Rome ever built – the Colosseum”.

He comes up against naval warfare, a cutthroat promoter (Denzel Washington) and a stampeding rhino. But how much of this really took place in Roman times? As always with films based in the past, pedantic historians will jump in to assess the degree of cinematic license and historical misinterpretation. So it is with the forthcoming Gladiator II.

Did gladiators fight rhinos?

One thing that certainly did not happen was a warrior mounted on a rhinoceros (even a non-computer-generated one) charging at a group of gladiators. However, there is a record of a rhino at the inauguration of the Colosseum in 80 BC. It didn’t fight men, but a bull, bear, buffalo, bison, lion and two steers. The other rare mentions of rhinos in Rome are of those in menageries, to be admired as exotic creatures.

This Roman interest in foreign, wild animals was the basis of the initial beast spectacles which began in 275 BC with an exhibition of captured war elephants. Such non-violent displays of animals continued into the imperial era, but in 186 BC the first staged animal hunt ( venatio), featuring both lions and leopards, took place and by 169 BC beast hunts had become an official part of republican state festivals.

Later, under the emperors, collecting and transporting beasts, especially unusual and foreign ones, to be displayed – but more often killed – demonstrated imperial power, territorial control and the vastness of the empire. Thousands of animals were brought from Africa and elsewhere to Roman arenas to be slaughtered for entertainment and the meat from the dead animals was given away to the spectators (it was easier than trying to dispose of the many carcasses).

A 5th-century mosaic showing two gladiators fighting a tiger. (Great Palace of Constantinople/CC BY 4.0)

Those who fought the beasts were not gladiators but specially trained hunters ( venatores) armed with spears. The  venatio could also feature fights between animals, as with the Colosseum rhinoceros, but most often the contest consisted of bulls against an elephant or bear. Animal hunts outlasted gladiatorial combats as a source of spectator entertainment, but as both the size of the empire and imperial funds diminished, greater reliance was placed on domestically reared “wild” animals.

Were there sea battles in the Colosseum?

More credence in historical terms can be given to the film’s staged sea battle ( naumachia) in the flooded Colosseum. Such spectacles were expensive to stage and were reserved for special occasions.

The first one recorded was for Emperor Augustus in 2BC. Held on an artificial lake, it featured 30 large ships carrying some 3,000 marines plus an unspecified number of rowers. Participants in a naumachia, typically either convicted criminals or prisoners of war, were expected to kill each other or drown, though, the demonstration of fighting ability and courage could gain them a pardon.

The Naumachia by Ulpiano Checa (1894) imagines naval warfare in the Coliseum. (Museo Ulpiano Checa)

The grandest sea battle was provided by Emperor Claudius on Lake Fucinus, a spectacle involving 100 ships and some 19,000 marines and oarsmen. It was at this event that the fighting men reportedly said “hail, emperor, we who are about to die salute you”, mistakenly assigned to gladiators in so many films, including the first Gladiator.

Literary sources (not always to be trusted in antiquity as they were often written well after alleged events) claim that the Colosseum was flooded for a sea battle at its inauguration. After some debate, historians now accept that the engineering mechanisms were in place so that, at least in its early days, the Colosseum could have accommodated a  naumachia.

Did a thumbs down really mean death for a gladiator?

Gladiator II also showcases the misconstrued sporting legacy of the thumbs up signal to spare a defeated gladiator who requested mercy or the converse of a thumbs down from those who wished him to die.

The arena was a large, noisy place and hand signals were often used as a means of communication. Indeed, rather than verbally requesting mercy, the defeated warrior himself would raise the index finger of his right hand, or even the hand itself, both of which were recognized pleas for clemency.

Pollice Verso (Thumbs Down) by Jean-Léon Gérôme, (1872). (Phoenix Art Museum)

When the crowd opted for the death of a fighter they indicated this by means of  pollice verso, literally a turned thumb, with no direction specified. When the hand was waved the sign indicated that the gladiator’s throat should be cut by his conqueror. Those who wished to save the vanquished, but courageous, fighter gave the sign  pollice compresso, a compressed thumb but one often hidden from sight so as not to cause visual confusion.

Gladiators were valuable assets. Promoters, who had paid a hiring fee (typically 10-20% of their value) for them to fight, were reluctant to incur the full asset value demanded as compensation should they die. Especially when, at the crowd’s insistence, they could have a choice in the matter.

In many instances the event had been promoted to curry favor with the spectators so to go against their wishes would be counterproductive. However, whether the ultimate decision-maker gave a thumbs up or thumbs down is debatable. The idea that this occurred seems to have developed around 1872 with the popularity of a painting by French artist, Jean-Léon Gérôme. In it he depicts vestal virgins giving the dreaded sign. Although titled Pollice Verso, it became conventionally referred to as “the thumbs down painting”.

Top image: Paul Mescal as Lucius in Gladiator II.             Source: BFA/Aidan Monaghan/Paramount Pictures

This article was originally published under the title ‘Did Romans really fight rhinos? Sports historian explains the truth behind the battle scenes in Ridley Scott’s Gladiator II’ by Wray Vamplew on The Conversation, and has been republished under a Creative Commons License.

Researchers have successfully brought back to life a mysterious seed discovered in a cave in the Judean Desert during the 1980s, radiocarbon dated to more than 1,000 years old! To add to the intrigue, DNA analysis links it to a genus of tree that, although now extinct, is mentioned in the Bible. Named ‘Sheba’, scientists believe it to be a remnant of a now-extinct population of trees that once thrived in the Southern Levant, a region that includes present-day Israel, Palestine, and Jordan.

The sapling grown from the seed, planted around 14 years ago. (Guy Eisner)

Sheba: A Distinct Smell, A Distinct Species

Sheba has been classified as part of the Commiphora genus, which belongs to the Frankincense and Myrrh family (Burseraceae). Over the past 14 years, Sheba has grown into a tree nearly 3 meters (10 feet) tall, allowing scientists to finally analyze its features. Today, this family includes about 200 known species.

Commiphora trees are primarily found in Africa, Madagascar, and the Arabian Peninsula, where they have long been valued for their aromatic gum resins and other ethnobotanical uses, reveals the study published in Communications Biology.

The seed that produced Sheba was dated to between 993 and 1202 AD. While DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis confirmed that Sheba is closely related to other trees in the Commiphora genus, it stands apart as a distinct species. Its closest relatives are Commiphora angolensis, C. neglecta, and C. tenuipetiolata.

Left) ancient seed prior to planting, Right) developing seed at 5 weeks showing epicotyl and developing cotyledons covered by seed coat. (Guy Eisner/Communications Biology)

Initially, researchers speculated that Sheba might be an example of the historical “Judean Balsam” or “Balm of Judea,” a tree prized in ancient times for its fragrance. This plant was often mentioned by Greek, Roman-Byzantine, and Post-Classical writers from the fourth century BC to the eighth century AD, reports Live Science. However, after further analysis, the researchers determined that Sheba lacks the aromatic compounds typical of Judean Balsam, making this theory unlikely.

“Based on these findings, we refuted our initial hypothesis that Sheba is the historical Judean Balsam cultivated in this region during antiquity and considered a second hypothesis to explain the identity of the ancient germinated Commiphora seedling,” the researchers explained in their study.

Instead, they propose that Sheba could be the source of “tsori,” a resin mentioned in the Bible with healing properties, as noted in the books of Genesis, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. They further elaborate that “Biblical ‘tsori’, likely the product of a local species, was historically associated with Gilead, a richly forested area in the Dead Sea-Jordan Rift Valley.” The fertile valleys of Gilead were extensively cultivated throughout history, making it a plausible origin for this resin.

The fact that Sheba’s seed was found in a cave in the Dead Sea-Jordan Rift Valley lends further support to the idea that it could be a living example of this ancient, lost tree. Chemical analysis of Sheba’s leaves and resin revealed high concentrations of pentacyclic triterpenoids, compounds known for their wound-healing, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and anti-cancer properties. Researchers also found that 30% of Sheba’s leaves contain squalene, an organic compound widely used in skincare products, reports IFL Science.

Another intriguing question the team sought to answer was how the seed ended up in the cave where it was discovered. They hypothesize that an animal might have deposited it there or that it was deliberately stored by humans.

The idea that an animal or bird may have carried the seed into the cave is supported by evidence showing that small rodents often store Commiphora seeds, while birds, such as pigeons and doves, are known to eat the fruits. These animals have been found in archaeological digs in the Judean Desert and are still present in the area today. The relatively small number of seeds found in the cave suggests that an animal was responsible for depositing them.

However, the possibility remains that the seed was stored there by humans. At the time of its deposit, Judean Balsam had already disappeared from the region, and the area was experiencing significant political and social upheaval, leading to economic instability. Other excavations in the region have shown that caves were often used to hide valuable goods during such times.

“As the seed from a surviving member of a native species possibly associated with commerce, Sheba may have been considered valuable enough to deliberately sequester in a cave,” the researchers noted. “If human intervention was involved, it may also have been brought from outside the region, perhaps with the goal of reintroducing a once-valuable Commiphora species.”

Despite this possibility, the animal deposit theory seems more likely, as there were no other human artifacts found in the cave alongside the seed.

Further research is needed to identify additional compounds in the tree’s tissue. The team concluded that “the germination of an ancient Commiphora seed from the Judean Desert provides evidence, for the first time, of its presence in the region approximately 1,000 years ago, and potentially identifies it as a native tree or shrub whose valuable resin, ‘tsori,’ was associated with medicinal use in the Bible, though its identity has been long debated.”

Top image: Left; 3-meter-tall tree ‘Sheba’; Right; Close up of the leaves.              Source: Guy Eisner/Communications Biology

By Sahir Pandey

Researchers in Morocco have unearthed the remains of the earliest known farming society in northwest Africa, dating back to the Final Neolithic period, around 3400-2900 BC. It is the earliest and largest agricultural complex yet found in Africa outside of the Nile region, and shares features with similarly aged sites in Iberia.

This study, published in  Antiquity, reveals for the first time the importance of the Maghreb (northwest Africa) in the emergence of complex societies in the wider Mediterranean.

Stone tools from Oued Beht: a & b) lower grinding stones; c) upper grinder reused as anvil. (Lorena Lombardi & Moad Radi/Antiquity Publications Ltd)

Ancient Importance of the Location

With a Mediterranean coast, a border with the Sahara desert and the shortest maritime crossing between Africa and Europe, the Maghreb is perfectly located as a center for major cultural developments. And it now seems this ran true into the deep past.

The region’s importance during the Paleolithic, Iron Age and Islamic periods was already known from the evidence already gathered from sites in the region, but there was a gap in knowledge of the archaeology of the Maghreb between c. 4000 and 1000 BC, a period of dynamic change across much of the Mediterranean.

With the intention of closing that gap, Youssef Bokbot (INSAP), Cyprian Broodbank (Cambridge University), and Giulio Lucarini (CNR-ISPC and ISMEO) have carried out multidisciplinary archaeological fieldwork at Oued Beht, Morocco, with revealing results.

Prof. Broodbank explains:

“For over thirty years I have been convinced that Mediterranean archaeology has been missing something fundamental in later prehistoric north Africa. Now, at last, we know that was right, and we can begin to think in new ways that acknowledge the dynamic contribution of Africans to the emergence and interactions of early Mediterranean societies.”

The findings reveal that the site was the largest agricultural complex of this period in Africa outside of the Nile region. All the evidence points to the presence of a large-scale farming settlement—similar in size to Early Bronze Age Troy, write the researchers.

Stone tools from Oued Beht: e & f) polished axes; g) axe/adze preform; h) serrated sickle element; i) rectilinear sickle element; j) circular endscraper; k) product from bipolar percussion. (Lorena Lombardi & Moad Radi/Antiquity Publications Ltd)

The study authors state, according to a press release:

“For more than a century, the last great unknown of later Mediterranean prehistory has been the role played by the societies of Mediterranean’s southern Africa shores west of Egypt. Our discoveries prove that this gap has been due not to any lack of major prehistoric activity, but to the relative lack of investigation and publishing. Oued Beht now affirms the central role of the Maghreb in the emergence of both Mediterranean and wider African societies.”

Final Neolithic pottery from Oued Beht: a) buff fabric bowls, jar (with post-firing hole), large tunnel lugs and round base. (Toby Wilkinson/Antiquity Publications Ltd)

Unprecedented Discoveries in the Region

The team found domesticated plant and animal remains, pottery and lithics, all dating to the Final Neolithic period. Their excavations also revealed extensive evidence for deep storage pits.

Importantly, contemporaneous sites with similar pits have been found on the other side of the Strait of Gibraltar in Iberia, where finds of ivory and ostrich eggs have long pointed to African connections. This suggests that the Maghreb was instrumental in wider western Mediterranean developments during the fourth millennium BC.

The findings prove Oued Beht and the northwest Maghreb were clearly integral parts of the wider Mediterranean region. As such, these discoveries significantly change our understanding of the later prehistory of the Mediterranean and Africa, say the study authors.

As the authors of the  Antiquity paper state:

“It is crucial to consider Oued Beht within a wider co-evolving and connective framework embracing peoples on both sides of the Mediterranean-Atlantic gateway during the later fourth and third millennia BC—and, for all the likelihood of movement in both directions, to recognize it as a distinctively African-based community that contributed substantially to the shaping of that social world.

This research forces a re-evaluation of the Maghreb’s role during this transformative period, suggesting that far from being a marginal player, North Africa contributed significantly to the complex interactions and developments taking place across the Mediterranean.

Top image: Aerial photograph of the Oued Beht ridge and river, highlighted in color.      Source: Toby Wilkinson/Antiquity Publications Ltd

By Gary Manners

In his seminal work ‘The End of the House of Lancaster’ Professor R. L. Storey places the beginning of the Wars of the Roses firmly in the period July/August 1453 and attributes its origins to the rising tensions between the Neville and Percy families in Yorkshire during that summer. This ignores a far more violent feud between two altogether more powerful cousins, both closely related to the Nevilles, which had raged in south Wales over the issue of regional supremacy during the previous fifteen months.

The noble rivalry in the north came to a head with an attempt by Thomas Percy, Lord Egremont, to intercept a Neville wedding party on its way back to Sheriff Hutton from Tattersall castle in Lincolnshire. The Nevilles, led by the Earl of Salisbury and his two sons, Thomas and John, were taking the road north from York when they were confronted at Heworth Moor by Egremont’s affinity, numbering some 5,000 men. Egremont, the youngest son of Thomas, Earl of Northumberland, seems to have been a particularly rash and troublesome man and although he had little hope of inheriting the family estates, he had been a conspicuous and destabilizing presence in the politics of the north since 1450. There had been several encounters between Egremont and the younger Nevilles since the spring and he had been recruiting a following in and around the city of York since May.

When the Neville party hoved into view on Heworth Moor, Egremont tried to get his ragtag group of followers into some sort of order to intercept the Nevilles and bring to a head the simmering tensions of the previous months. However, despite its size, Egremont’s retinue was not made up of battle-hardened reivers from the border with Scotland but, apart from a few knights of the Percy retinue, mainly comprised ‘members of the crafts – tailors, weavers and the like’ – largely the unemployed artisans of York. As the two forces squared up there was a great deal of posturing; insults were traded, and a few brawls may have broken out but in the end the Nevilles reached home ‘without bloodshed’ and only one man claimed compensation for the injuries he had sustained. This celebrated encounter was not, as a London chronicler would state in retrospect ‘ the beginning of sorrows’ but rather a byproduct of an altogether more brutal series of encounters which had already blighted south Wales for over a year, and which would have far more baleful national consequences.

That conflict had its roots in the defeat and expulsion of the final English garrisons in Normandy in May 1450. After the battle of Formigny all of Henry V’s conquests had been lost, and the benefits of the great victory of Agincourt had proven to be ephemeral. The man blamed by many for this national humiliation – the commander who led the remnants of England’s Norman garrisons to refuge in Calais, was Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset and cousin of King Henry VI.  Somerset, now defending Calais, was fortunate not to be in England at this time as exasperation with the ineffectual government of the king along with the searing humiliation of defeat had led to a serious upsurge of violence known to history as ‘Jack Cade’s Rebellion’ in July and August 1450 during which the idea of an alternative king had been uttered for the first time. At its height, the rebellion had engulfed the southeast of the kingdom and seen the brutal beheading of the king’s former chief minister, the Duke of Suffolk and the murder of Bishop Moleyns of Chichester by a mob of unpaid soldiers and sailors. The government had suppressed the revolt with difficulty and had eventually managed to restore order to the southeastern counties.

Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, later known as Warwick the Kingmaker. (Public Domain)

Read more…

Top image: Medieval knight wearing armor, ready to fight in battle.           Source: Gorodenkoff / Adobe Stock

By Stephen David

The Peterborough Petroglyphs are the largest collection of ancient rock carvings (petroglyphs) in all of North America, made up of over 900 images carved into crystalline limestone located near Peterborough in Ontario, Canada.

Proclaimed a National Historic Site of Canada in 1976, local indigenous people believe that this is an entrance into the spirit world and that the Spirits actually speak to them from this location. They call it Kinoomaagewaapkong, which translates to “the rocks that teach”.

Challenges in Dating Petroglyphs

The Peterborough Petroglyphs are carved into a single slab of crystalline limestone which is 55 meters (180.44 ft) long and 30 metres (98.42 ft) wide. About 300 of the images are decipherable shapes, including humans, shamans, animals, solar symbols, geometric shapes and boats.

Shaman and snake. (Lone Primate/CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

It is generally believed that the indigenous Algonkian people carved the petroglyphs between 900 and 1400 AD. But rock art is usually impossible to date accurately for lack of any carbon material and dating artifacts or relics found in proximity to the site only reveals information about the last people to be there. They could be thousands of years older than experts allow, if only because the extensive weathering of some of the glyphs implies more than 1,000 years of exposure.

Algonquin couple, 18th-century watercolor. The first Algonquian encountered by the French were the Kitcisìpiriniwak (“Ottawa River Men”; singular: Kitcisìpirini), whose village was located on an island in the Ottawa River; the French called this group La Nation de l’Isle. (Public Domain)

There are some other mysteries surrounding these remarkable petroglyphs. The boat carvings bear no resemblance to the traditional boat of the Native Americans. One solar boat — a stylized shaman vessel with a long mast surmounted by the sun — is typical of petroglyphs found in northern Russia and Scandinavia. A Harvard professor believes the petroglyphs are inscriptions (and maybe even a form of written language) left by a Norse king named Woden-lithi, who was believed to have sailed from Norway down the St. Lawrence River in about 1700 BC, long before the Greenland Viking explorations.

Cast of solar boat. (D. Gordon E. Robertson/CC BY-SA 3.0)

Another vessel depicted in the petroglyphs is a large ship with banks of oars and figure-heads at bow and stern. There is a large steering oar at the stern, a necessary feature only for vessels that are 100 feet (30.48 m) or more in length. However, the Algonkian people who inhabited the region never produced anything more seaworthy than a birch-bark canoe or a dugout. Even reluctant archaeologists admit that the ships “do not look like real Algonkian canoes” but steer away from any uncomfortable conclusions about pre-Columbian visitors by speculating that the vessels are simply a shaman’s idea of magical canoes that travel the universe.

Spirit boat from Petroglyphs Provincial Park near Peterborough, Ontario. (Lone Primate/CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Another peculiarity is the figureheads at bow and stern which resemble birds. The same design can be seen in Etruscan repousse gold work of the 9th century BC. The bird-headed ships were portrayed 200 years earlier, when Egyptian artists carved their images into the walls of Pharaoh Ramses IIIs “Victory Temple” in the Valley of the Kings.

Yet another mystery is the presence in the petroglyphs of a tall figure or ‘god’ which stands with arms akimbo and with a halo radiating rays, presumably from the sun. Cowering before him are two minute humble humans in attitudes of supplication. Scientists think the figure may represent a sun god but there doesn’t exist any known cases of sun worship among the indigenous people of the region.

Some historians and researchers believe there is more to the petroglyphs than meets the eye. Some maintain that they are in fact a sky map of the heavens based on European tradition from 3100 BC. Evidence includes four signs which are the same as those found for the identical astronomical position at Lewes, England, leading to a possible speculative connection between the Peterborough petroglyphs and the megalithic people of Ancient Britain.

So the petroglyphs of Peterborough remain an intriguing riddle, a sort of code to which the key is still missing.

Part 2 – ‘Preservation’ of Peterborough’s Petroglyphs: When Non-Indigenous People Just Don’t Get it Right

Top image: Peterborough Petroglyphs in the province of Ontario, Canada. Source: Lone Primate/CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

By Joanna Gillan

Overlooking the Konya Plain in Turkey lies the remarkable and unique ancient city of Catalhoyuk, the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date. At a time when most of the world’s people were nomadic hunter-gatherers, Catalhoyuk was a bustling town of as many as 10,000 people. According to a 2014 report in Hurriyet Daily News, archaeologists have gained new insights into the ancient city as further excavation work has revealed that the Catalhoyuk society was a place of gender equality, where men and women held equal status. 

Çatalhöyük, which means ‘forked mound’ and refers to the site’s east and west mounds, features a unique and peculiar street-less settlement of houses clustered together in a honeycomb-like maze with most accessed by holes in the ceiling, which also served as the only source of ventilation into the house. The rooftops were effectively streets and may have formed plazas where many daily activities may have taken place. The homes had plaster interiors, and each main room served for cooking and daily activities.

North Area Excavation. Catalhoyuk was a street-less settlement of houses clustered together in a honeycomb-like maze. (Çatalhöyük/CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Through analysis of wall paintings, sculptures, and burials, researchers have concluded that men and women held equal status in Catalhoyuk. 

“Thanks to modern scientific techniques, we have seen that women and men were eating very similar foods, lived similar lives and worked in similar works,” said Stanford University Professor Ian Hodder, who directed the excavations. “The same social stature was given to both men and women.” 

The level of equality also extended beyond gender and appears to have applied to the society as a whole. 

No footpaths or streets between the dwellings. Most were accessed by holes in the ceiling and doors on the side of the houses, with doors reached by ladders and stairs. (Murat Özsoy 1958/CC BY-SA 4.0)

 “People lived with the principle of equality in Catalhoyuk, especially considering the hierarchy that appeared in other settlements in the Middle East. This makes Catalhoyuk different. There was no leader, government or administrative building,” Professor Hodder said.

Another interesting discovery that emerged from excavations was that burials of the deceased, which were typically in pits under the floor or beneath hearths in houses, were not organized according to family relationships.

“We have also seen that people who were buried under houses were not biologically relatives or members of the same family. They lived as a family, but their natural parents are not the same. Those who were born in Catalhoyuk did not live with their biological parents but with others,” said Hodder.

Catalhoyuk. (kanuni_10tr/Adobe Stock)

Catalhoyuk was first discovered in 1958 by James Mellaart, and the first excavations were carried out in 1961. Since 1995, an enormous archaeological research project took place each season with surprising discoveries and ended in 2018 although publications are still in preparation. 

Catalhoyuk is a UNESCO World Heritage listed site and has attracted thousands of academics from more than twenty countries to its archaeological works. Continued excavations at Catalhoyuk are being directed by the Anadolu University.  

Top image: Catalhoyuk. Source: GeniusMinus/Adobe Stock

By Joanna Gillan

The largest jade dragon ever discovered has been unearthed from a Hongshan Culture stone mound in Aohan Banner, Chifeng City, Inner Mongolia, China. Measuring 15.8 cm (6.2 inches) in length, 9.5 cm (3.7 inches) in width, and 3 cm (1.2 inches) in thickness, this stunning artifact is one of over 100 jade items recently recovered from the site, marking a momentous occasion in the study of this Neolithic civilization.

This find was announced during the 70th anniversary symposium of the naming of Hongshan Culture, reports China Daily, shedding new light on the rich jade tradition of this ancient culture, which thrived between 6500 and 5000 years ago in northern China.

This “Southern Circle, Northern Altar, and Northern Tomb” at Yuanbaoshan Hongshan Culture Stone Mound. (China Daily)

Unveiling a Neolithic Treasure Trove

The discovery was made during a large-scale excavation at the Yuanbaoshan Hongshan Culture Stone Mound in Aohan Banner, the largest known burial mound from the late Hongshan Culture period.

Archaeologists uncovered an array of jade artifacts, including ritual and ceremonial objects, which provide critical insights into the culture’s complex belief systems and connections to other Neolithic civilizations in China.

The jade dragon is remarkable in size and craftsmanship, representing the peak of Hongshan jade artistry. The Hongshan Culture, known for its jade objects, including dragons and other ritual items, holds an essential place in the early history of Chinese civilization.

Left; The jade dragon next to an anonymous hand. Right; Funerary jade. (China Daily)

In addition to the jade dragon, the excavation revealed jade crown ornaments similar to those found at the Lingjiatan Culture site in Anhui Province, filling a gap in the understanding of the connections between different regional cultures. The jade artifacts, including ceremonial tools and ornaments, are thought to have been part of elaborate burial practices, highlighting the spiritual importance of jade to the Hongshan people.

Selection of many jade artifacts found at the mound. (China Daily)

Stone Mound: A Tomb and Sacrificial Altar

The Yuanbaoshan Stone Mound site consists of a combined tomb and sacrificial altar, characterized by a “Southern Circle, Northern Altar, and Northern Tomb” layout. This architectural design reflects the culture’s advanced ritual practices.

Archaeologists have identified multiple stone structures and even semi-underground houses at the site, suggesting that the Hongshan people constructed elaborate tombs for high-status individuals and used altars for religious ceremonies.

The site offers remarkable evidence of cultural exchange between the Hongshan Culture and other contemporary Neolithic cultures, such as the Yangshao and Liangzhu Cultures. The jade artifacts discovered show stylistic similarities to those from these cultures, underscoring the interconnectedness of early Chinese civilizations.

Rediscovering a Forgotten Legacy

Although the site was not registered during earlier national cultural relics surveys, it was confirmed in 2015 as a stone mound of the Hongshan Culture, thanks to investigations led by the Hongshan Culture Research Institute of Chifeng University and the Xinzhou Museum of Aohan Banner. It wasn’t until 2024, however, that a full-scale rescue excavation was initiated by the Cultural Heritage Bureau of Inner Mongolia.

As the largest jade dragon ever discovered, this extraordinary artifact symbolizes the sophistication and spiritual depth of Hongshan Culture, marking it as one of the most important archaeological finds in recent Chinese history.

Top image: The northern round tomb of Yuanbaoshan Stone Mound Site in Aohan Banner.        Source: China Daily

By Gary Manners

The astonishing Nazca Lines of Peru are one of the true wonders of the ancient world. The figures they form are still visible from the air despite the passage of approximately 2,000 years of time since their original creation.
But it turns out there were many more of these figures spread out across the surface of the Nazca desert than had previously been believed. While it took nearly a century for observers to identify 430 of the larger figures, a new AI analytical program detected the faint outlines of hundreds more that human eyes had missed.

The AI system was used to scrutinized imagery collected by drones that ranged far and wide across the entire Nazca desert region, where the glyph makers were active between 200 BC and 500 AD. Its sensitivity surpasses that of the human eye by 20 times, which is why it can make out the outlines of humans and animals that have been repeatedly missed by researchers looking at aerial photographs and satellite imagery.

Drone images taken during the field survey that confirmed the geoglyphs as authentic. The scale bars are 5 m. Outlines have been added as a guide to the eye. Versions of the images without the outlines and archaeological interpretations of the relief can be found in the PNAS paper. (Sakai, M. et al./PNAS)

How Artificial Intelligence Revealed the Secrets of Nazca

The breathtaking collection of carved figures known as the Nazca Lines decorate a 170-square-mile (440-square-kilometer) patch of ground in Peru’s arid and inhospitable Nazca Desert. They were created by a pre-Inca people known as the Nazca, who made them by scraping off or digging out the upper layers of the desert’s reddened surface to reveal lighter soils hidden beneath. Using this simple methodology they were able to create figures of all shapes and sizes, which they did enthusiastically for centuries.

The AI program used to explore the lines more thoroughly was built by scientists at the IBM Thomas J Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, New York. The request to create it came from a team of Nazca researchers from Japan’s Yamagata University, led by archaeologist and anthropologist Masato Sakai.

There are still more geoglyph candidates identified by the AI detection system that have to be investigated. But on-the-ground surveys that took place over a six-month period in 2022 and 2023 verified the presence of 303 new geoglyphs at Nazca, increasing the known catalog of figures by 40%.

Once the other sites are looked at, researchers hope to boost this number by 200-300 more, as they now realize the ancient geoglyph makers were far more active and productive than previously believed.

What the AI system has proven to be particularly good at is spotting smaller figures that feature more intricate details.

“Even with limited training examples, the developed AI approach is demonstrated to be effective in detecting the smaller relief-type geoglyphs, which unlike the giant line-type geoglyphs are very difficult to discern,” the study authors wrote in a new article appearing in the journal PNAS. “The improved account of figurative geoglyphs enables us to analyze their motifs and distribution across the Nazca Pampa.”

Types of Glyphs

The giant figures covering the desert floor and the smaller relief figures that surround them were undoubtedly made by the same people. Nevertheless, there are clear differences between the themes explored in the two types of geoglyphs.

“We find that relief-type geoglyphs depict mainly human motifs or motifs of things modified by humans, such as domesticated animals and decapitated heads (81.6%),” the researchers wrote. “They are typically located within viewing distance (on average 43 meters) of ancient trails that crisscross the Nazca Pampa and were most likely built and viewed at the individual or small group level.”

According to the researchers, the newly discovered lines depict a wide variety of figures, including abstract human-like creatures, decapitated human heads, domesticated animals, non-domesticated animals like fish and birds, humans and animals interacting, and in one instance a carving that is said to resemble a “killer whale holding a knife.” The latter figure is one of the largest of the relief-type images, covering 72 feet (22 meters) of ground from top to bottom.

Nazca glyph likened to a killer whale holding a knife. (Sakai, M. et al./PNAS)

The location of the relief figures along trails suggests they might have been made spontaneously by travelers. In contrast, the giant figures that decorate the landscape in the Nazca desert required more planning and more coordination among a larger group of people to make.

“The giant line-type figurative geoglyphs mainly depict wild animals (64%),” the researchers noted. They concluded that their regular spacing “suggests that they were probably built and used on a community level for ritual activities.”

The giant figures were first seen from the skies by early airplane travelers in the 1920s. People have been looking for more of them ever since, and never before have so many been discovered in such a brief period of time.

Studying the World’s Most Elaborate and Expansive Ceremonial Center

Evaluating what has been discovered as a whole, the researchers from Yamagata University have drawn some conclusions about what the creation of the entire network of Nazca figures is all about.

“The reason why the purpose of the geoglyphs’ creation remained unknown for so long is that previous researchers lacked basic information about the distribution and types of geoglyphs,” Masato Sakai told ScienceAlert. “However, in this paper, thanks to field surveys utilizing AI and remote sensing, the distribution of the geoglyphs has been clarified. As a result, we were able to shed light on the purpose behind their creation.”

That purpose, they say, is to draw visitors to the spiritual and ceremonial center of Nazca culture, which was known as Cahuachi. This complex of adobe structures overlooks some of the figures from perches built on mounds, allowing for a spectacular view of the surrounding landscape.

Here there was a complex network of interconnected geoglyphs of different sizes, which Sakai maintains “is connected to ceremonial centers [like] Cahuachi and sacred places.”

“In the ancient Andean civilization, socially important information was sometimes conveyed through combinations and arrangements of pictures,” he continued. “I believe that information was inscribed on the Nazca Pampa through the arrangement and combination of geoglyphs.”

Decoding that information remains an ongoing challenge, Sakai acknowledges. But now that so many previously hidden Nazca figures have been discovered, interpreting the true meaning of all of them could be easier—if such a thing can actually be done.

Top image: Six of a total of 303 newly discovered relief-type figurative geoglyphs from the AI-assisted survey.                 Source: Sakai, M. et al./PNAS

By Nathan Falde

Over 3,000 years ago, in Tollense, a river valley that now lies in northern Germany, two large armies clashed in what is now recognized as Europe’s “oldest-known battle”. The clues have been pieced together through the study of dozens of arrowheads, which are helping frame a narrative around the warriors who participated in this battle 3,250 years ago. Some of the arrows recovered from the battlefield were manufactured far away in the southern regions of Central Europe, implying that foreign warriors may have been involved in the battle, potentially as part of an invading force.

The precise motivations behind the conflict remain a mystery, as does the identity of the participants. However, the research published in Antiquity has provided new clues about the combatants, challenging the previously held assumption that the combatants were locals.

Excavations at the battlefield of Tollense. (S. Sauer/Antiquity Publications Ltd)

Tollense Valley: A Scene of Intense Violence

Archaeologist Tobias Inselmann, the lead author of the study, and his colleagues, analyzed 54 bronze and flint arrowheads unearthed at the Tollense Valley archaeological site, located about 80 miles (129 kms) north of Berlin, in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. Though this location is now a tranquil riverside field, it was the scene of intense violence around 1250 BC.

Archaeologists believe that as many as 2,000 warriors fought on each side, making it the largest known battle in Europe during that period.

“The arrowheads are a kind of the ‘smoking gun’,” says Inselmann in a press release, who collected more than 4700 arrowheads from Central Europe for his M.A. thesis at Göttingen University.

“Just like the murder weapon in a mystery, they give us a clue about the culprit, the fighters of the Tollense Valley battle and where they came from.”

Bronze and flint arrowheads from the Tollense Valley site. (Lief Inselmann/Antiquity Publications Ltd)

Such a large-scale conflict was unexpected, as no other battle from the time has been found in Europe, and researchers had previously assumed that warfare in the Bronze Age was limited to smaller skirmishes. However, the scale of the Tollense battle, suggested by the sheer number of combatants, paints a very different picture.

Estimates of the death toll range from 750 to 1,000, based on extensive excavations that uncovered thousands of human bones from the site. From this mass of remains, archaeologists have identified at least 150 individuals. Most of them were young men, aged between 20 and 40, all young, strong, and able-bodied, though the remains of two women were also found. This suggests that the fighting force was primarily composed of young male warriors, a demographic typical of ancient military engagements, but the presence of women opens up further questions about the nature of the battle and who may have been involved, reports National Geographic.

Excavations have revealed an array of weaponry, including wooden clubs and arrowheads, though no swords have been found. Despite this, several skulls recovered from the battlefield bear cut marks, indicating that swords were indeed used in the fighting. One particularly gruesome find was an arrowhead embedded in a skull, stark evidence of the brutal nature of the conflict. The remains of at least five horses were discovered, suggesting that some of the combatants may have fought on horseback.

One of the foreign type arrowheads. (Lief Inselmann/Antiquity Publications Ltd)

Regional Power Struggles: Warriors from Afar

Since the 1980s, human remains and pieces of ancient weapons—including spearheads, arrowheads, and the blades of bronze knives—had been periodically discovered in the Tollense area. However, it wasn’t until 2011 that researchers conclusively identified the site as an ancient battlefield. The breakthrough came when a member of the excavation team, using a metal detector, uncovered a significant number of bronze arrowheads.

Archaeologist Thomas Terberger, from Georg August University of Göttingen, was part of the team that carried out the initial excavations nearly two decades ago. He recalls that the metal detectorist’s find of a box of bronze arrowheads marked a pivotal moment in realizing the historical significance of the site.

The current research shows some of the arrowheads standing out due to their distinctive shapes, particularly those with “rhombic” bases and barbs. These types of arrowheads are more commonly associated with regions much further south, such as Bavaria in modern-day Germany and Moravia in modern-day Czechia, reports CNN.

These distinctive arrowheads have not been found in local burial sites as grave goods, indicating that they were not obtained through trade or cultural exchange. According to Inselmann, this strengthens the hypothesis that southern warriors brought their own weapons to the battle, rather than local people acquiring them by other means.

The evidence suggesting that southern warriors took part in the battle may indicate that the conflict was not an isolated local skirmish but part of broader regional power struggles. These findings suggest that Bronze Age societies in Europe were more interconnected and potentially more prone to conflict than previously believed.

A Different Picture of Bronze Age Europe

Terberger and other researchers are now examining how such large-scale military engagements might reflect the social and political organization of the time. Evidence from burial sites in other parts of Germany suggests that warriors had already become a distinct social class by this period. The construction of many hillforts during this era may also indicate that societies were becoming more hierarchical and militarized, leading to an increase in warfare.

“The Tollense Valley conflict dates to a time of major changes,” says Inselmann, now at the Freie Universität Berlin. “This raises questions about the organisation of such violent conflicts. Were the Bronze Age warriors organised as a tribal coalition, the retinue or mercenaries of a charismatic leader ‒ a kind of “warlord” ‒, or even the army of an early kingdom?”

Before the discovery of the Tollense battlefield, many scholars assumed that the Bronze Age was relatively peaceful, with trade playing a central role in cultural development. However, the findings at Tollense paint a different picture, showing that large-scale violent conflicts were an integral part of Bronze Age life.

According to Terberger, these conflicts were likely driven by the significant cultural transformations occurring across Europe at the time. He points to the rise of the Urnfield Culture, which dominated much of Central Europe during this period and may have been the origin of some of the foreign warriors involved in the battle. The Urnfield Culture, which emerged in the 13th century BC, was marked by substantial political and religious changes, and the societal transitions of the time were likely more violent than previously assumed.

While the exact causes of this increase in warfare remain unclear, the period coincides with the so-called “Late Bronze Age Collapse,” a time when many Mediterranean empires fell apart due to a combination of factors such as climate change, disease, and social unrest. Similar pressures may have affected parts of Central and Northern Europe, leading to an escalation of violence.

As Molloy notes, this period also saw the emergence of new military technologies that likely contributed to the ability of armies to fight on such a large scale. The findings at Tollense, combined with evidence from other sites, suggest that the Bronze Age was not only a time of cultural and technological advancement but also one marked by widespread and organized warfare.

Top image: Skull segment with a bronze arrowhead embedded in it from the Tollense battlefield, Germany.                Source: Volker Minkus/Antiquity Publications Ltd

By Sahir Pandey