History

Archaeologists have made a remarkable discovery during excavations at an ancient cemetery in Poland. The researchers uncovered 160 artifacts dating back to the Neolithic period and early Bronze Age. The cemetery itself, which spans from the late pre-Roman to early Roman period (approximately the 1st century BC to the 2nd century AD), was also unearthed. 23 inhumation burials – where full bodies were buried in the ground – alongside four cremation burials, were a included at the cemetery.

Over the course of three excavation seasons, archaeologists from the Jagiellonian University’s Institute of Archaeology and the company Pryncypat made these finds, in the town of Kazimierza Wielka, located about 28 miles (44 km) northeast of Kraków, reports a Jagiellonian University Facebook post.

A selection of the findings from the cemetery in Poland. (Institute of Archaeology, Jagiellonian University, Cracow)

Cremation Burial: Burnt Remains

One cremation burial, discovered mid-August this year, proved particularly fascinating, as the burnt human remains had been placed in a bronze vessel of Roman origin. This bucket-shaped vessel, known as a situla, was used as an urn for human remains burned on a funeral pyre, according to Joanna Zagórska-Telega, one of the excavation leaders from the Jagiellonian University.

“The situla has survived almost intact, with elaborately cast dolphin-shaped handle attachments…Three legs in the shape of stylized dolphins have also survived at the base,” Zagórska-Telega was quoted by Newsweek.

Left, Joanna Zagórska-Telega holding the freshly excavated intact Roman bronze vessel that held cremated remains. Right, the vessel. (Left; Michał Podsiadło, Right; Jakub Śliwa/Jagiellonian University)

While the exact age of this specific vessel is still being determined, similar artifacts found in the region have been dated to the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD. Such finds are extremely rare in Poland.

The origins of these bronze vessels are still debated among scholars, though it is widely believed they were crafted in workshops located in northern Italy or the eastern Alps. Early bronze vessels, including situlae with dolphin-shaped attachments, made their way into Barbaricum (the area north of the Roman frontier, which includes modern-day Poland) mainly through trade.

Before conservation efforts begin, the vessel will undergo analysis to determine its method of construction. Researchers will also study the burnt human bones inside to ascertain the age and sex of the deceased.

One of the Przeworsk culture burials. (Michał Podsiadło/Jagiellonian University)

A Male Warrior: Przeworsk Culture

Based on the evidence, Zagórska-Telega suggests the individual may have been a male warrior. This theory is supported by the discovery of iron weapons, including a sword, spearheads, and shield fittings, found near the urn. These items were deliberately bent and burned on the funeral pyre, a common ritual practice in this context. The weapons’ style indicates the burial likely dates back to the 1st century BC.

Zagórska-Telega explains:

“Several dozen vessels, or fragments of vessels, of this type are known from all over Europe, but only a handful of them have been completely preserved in as good a condition as the situla from Kazimiera Wielka. Most of them were discovered by chance in the 19th and early 20th centuries, and only a few were found during regular excavations by archaeologists, i.e. in circumstances that allowed the entire context of the find to be studied. This is why the Kazimiera Wielka find is of such scientific importance.”

Such customs were prevalent among the Przeworsk culture, which thrived in central and southern Poland between the 3rd century BC and the mid-5th century AD. In fact, the custom of ritually destroying weapons and burying them with deceased warriors is typical of the peoples inhabiting the European Barbaricum during the last centuries BC and the early centuries AD.

It is believed that the Przeworsk culture, which practiced this custom, was linked to the Lugii and the Vandals, as mentioned in ancient sources, and its reach extended into parts of Slovakia and Ukraine. In the final centuries BC, the Przeworsk culture was significantly influenced by the Celts, who dominated much of central Europe at the time, reports Notes from Poland. Scholars suggest that it was likely through this Celtic influence that the situla discovered in Kazimierza Wielka found its way to the region occupied by the Przeworsk culture.

Top image: Rare Roman burial urn unearthed at burial ground in Poland.           Source: Institute of Archaeology, Jagiellonian University, Cracow

By Sahir Pandey

Thirteen ancient human genomes from the Oakhurst rock shelter in South Africa provide new insights into human history in the region.

Ancient DNA has provided spectacular insights into human history, particularly in Europe and Asia, where researchers have reconstructed the genomes of thousands of people. However, fewer than two dozen ancient genomes have been recovered from southern Africa – specifically Botswana, South Africa and Zambia – which has some of the world’s earliest evidence of modern humans, with the oldest genomes dating back around 2,000 years.

A team of researchers from the University of Cape Town (South Africa) and the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig (Germany) have analyzed human remains from the Oakhurst rock shelter in southernmost Africa and reconstructed the genomes of thirteen individuals, who died between 1,300 and 10,000 years ago, including the oldest human genome from South Africa to date .

“Oakhurst rock shelter is an ideal site to study human history, as it contained more than 40 human graves and preserved layers of human artefacts, such as stone tools, going back 12,000 years,” says Victoria Gibbon, Professor of Biological Anthropology at the University of Cape Town and co-senior author of the study.

“Sites like this are rare in South Africa, and Oakhurst has allowed a better understanding of local population movements and relationships across the landscape over nearly 9,000 years.”

Rock art at Oakhurst rock shelter, Oakhurst farm, near Hoekwil, South Africa. (© V. Gibbon/Max-Planck Institute)

Long history of genetic stability in southernmost Africa

The successful genetic sequencing of thirteen individuals from the site was not without its challenges, as Stephan Schiffels, co-senior author of the study, explains:

“Such ancient and poorly preserved DNA is quite difficult to sequence, and it took several attempts using different technologies and laboratory protocols to extract and process the DNA.”

The ancient genomes represent a time series from 10,000 to 1,300 years ago, providing a unique opportunity to study human migrations through time and the relationship to the diverse groups of people living in the region today.

A key finding was that the oldest genomes from the Oakhurst rock shelter are genetically quite similar to San and Khoekhoe groups living in the same region today.

This came as a surprise, as Joscha Gretzinger, lead author of the study, says:

“Similar studies from Europe have revealed a history of large-scale genetic changes due to human movements over the last 10,000 years. These new results from southernmost Africa are quite different, and suggest a long history of relative genetic stability.”

This only changed around 1,200 years ago, when newcomers arrived and introduced pastoralism, agriculture and new languages to the region and began interacting with local hunter-gatherer groups.

In one of the most culturally, linguistically and genetically diverse regions of the world, the new study shows that South Africa’s rich archaeological record is becoming increasingly accessible to archaeogenetics, providing new insights into human history and past demography.

Top image: Cape Point promontory, Cape Point Nature reserve, South Africa. Source: © V. Gibbon/Max-Planck Institute

The article “Insights into South African population history from 10,000-year-old human DNA.” was originally published on Science Daily.

Source: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. “Insights into South African population history from 10,000-year-old human DNA.” ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 19 September 2024. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/09/240919115012.htm

In all of history, few figures have reshaped the world as profoundly as Constantine the Great. Born amidst the chaos of a divided Roman Empire, Constantine emerged not only as a formidable warrior and shrewd politician but as the emperor who would forever alter the course of Western civilization. His vision went beyond mere conquest; he forged a new path for the empire, blending politics, religion, and culture into a legacy that still reverberates today. Constantine’s reign marked the dawn of a new era, one where the shadow of the cross loomed over the Roman world.

Constantine the Great and the Long Road to Greatness

Thanks to conflicting sources, we can’t be sure exactly when Constantine (or Gaius Flavius Valerius Constantinus, to give him his full name) was born. Estimates put the date at somewhere between 272 and 285 AD, at Naissus in present-day Syria.

His father was Flavius Constantius, later known as Constantius I, a high-profile military commander in the region and a member of Emperor Aurelian’s bodyguard. His mother, simply known as Helena, was a Greek Christian of low social standing, and it’s unknown whether she was married to Constantius or simply one of his concubines. The young Constantine benefited from a privileged upbringing but likely saw little of his father growing up.

Constantius appoints Constantine as his successor by Peter Paul Rubens, 1622 (Public Domain)

Still, thanks to nepotism, Constantine spent much of his young life in the imperial court. He earned a reputation as a hardworking and politically savvy young man. Under the emperor’s watchful gaze, he worked his way up and became the governor of under Diocletian in either 284 or 285 AD. Diocletian was somewhat of a role model to the young Constantine and taught him that the emperor’s job was to always act in the empire’s best interests.

Not long after promoting Constantine, Diocletian upset the status quo by announcing Maximian as his co-emperor. He gave Maximian the west and kept the east for himself. The Roman Empire still existed as a whole; Diocletian just thought having two emperors would make administration somewhat easier. As Emperor of the West, Maximian made Constantius his praetorian prefect in Gaul.

The bigger upset came in 305 AD when Dalmatia Diocletian and Maximian both decided to abdicate. They placed Galerius (an unpopular choice) on the throne in the east and Constantius in the west. The problem lay in the fact that Galerius appointed Maximinus Daia as his Caesar, and Constantius had Flavius Valerius Servius as his. This greatly upset both Constantine and Maxentius (son of Maximian), who had hoped to receive these roles for themselves. 

Battle of Constantine and Maxentius (detail of part of a fresco by Giulio Romano in the Hall of Constantine in the Raphael Rooms in the Vatican), copy c. 1650 by Lazzaro Baldi, now at the University of Edinburgh. (Public Domain)

While this new system of rule, the Tetrarchy, looked like a meritocracy, nepotism still ran deep. Ever since Constantius had been made Caesar in 293 AD, Constantine had been in Diocletian’s court, being groomed as his father’s presumed heir. 

After Diocletian abdicated, however, Constantine landed in Galerius’s court. Ancient sources make Galeirus sound like a barbarian and suggest Constantine wasn’t safe. Some claim Galerius sent Constantine out on suicide missions and gave him deadly tasks to complete (like fighting a lion to the death) in an attempt to get rid of him. The worst of these claims are probably pro-Constantine propaganda, but it’s clear that Galerius’ court wasn’t the best fit for Constantine.

In 306 AD, Constantine was allowed to leave the court of Galerius and join his father (either because Constantinus asked nicely or because Galerius wished to appease an upset Constantine). Either way, the result was almost a year of father-son bonding, during which the two campaigned in Britain against the troublesome Picts beyond Hadrian’s wall.

Then Constantius went and ruined things by dying of leukemia on July 25, 306 AD, in Eboracum. His last act was to appoint Constantine to the position of Augustus. Gaul and Britain accepted their new ruler, and Constantius’ loyal troops swore to follow him.

Not everyone was happy about it. Hispania rejected Constantine as their ruler (they had only recently been conquered), and Galerius was outraged. Technically, Constantine’s ascension had been illegal. Unfortunately for him, Constantine had proven himself since his father’s death by attacking and defeating the Franks, making his army even more loyal. In the end, Galerius decided on a compromise. He made Constantine Caesar and instead made his close friend, Severus, Augustus of the West. For their part, Constantine’s men ignored this and carried on calling him Augustus.

This new setup, however, upset Maxentius, who had now been overlooked twice. In October 307 AD, he took matters into his own hands and decided to declare himself Augustus. It was a ballsy move, but he had the backing of the people of Rome and the Praetorian Guard. Before things could get out of hand, Maximian came out of retirement and went to visit Constantine. If Constantine agreed to marry Maximian’s daughter, Fausta, and support his new brother-in-law, then Constantine would be made Augustus.

Maxentius, Constantine, and Maximian all united against Severus, whom no one trusted thanks to his close relationship with Galerius. This was unwelcome news for Severus, whose army promptly deserted him (they were probably bribed), forcing him to flee to Ravenna. He was then quickly captured and executed. This upset Galerius, who led a brief and unsuccessful invasion into the West.

The trouble wasn’t over yet though. In 308, a new tetrarchy was created. Licinius, another friend of Galerius, made Augustus, and Constantine stayed Caesar, meaning Maximian had reneged on their deal. 

Maximian then went one step further. In 310 AD, while Constantine was away fighting the Franks, Maximian came out of retirement again, declared Constantine dead, and made himself Augustus. When Constantine returned, he hunted his troublesome father-in-law to modern-day Marseilles, where Maximian hanged himself rather than be caught.

Back in Rome, Maxentius was losing favor. He had overtaxed the people so that he could build a new basilica and a massive statue of himself. Riots turned into revolts, and thousands of Romans were massacred in the streets. Constantine sat back and waited patiently, happy to watch Maxentius self-destruct. During this time, he sowed the seeds of the idea that it was his ancestral right to rule all of Rome and that it was time for the Tetrarchy to end.

In mid-310 AD, an ailing Galeirus called for an end to religious persecution and then died in 311 AD. With the tetrarchy all but destroyed, Constantine was free to raise an army of 40,000 and march across the Alps to invade Italy.

Becoming Emperor

Maxentius acted quickly after the death of Galerius to try and bolster his rule, but it was too late. He had too little support. In 312 AD, he left Rome to face Constantine at the Battle of Milvian Bridge. 

According to legend, the day before the battle, Constantine saw a cross of light in the sky with the words In Hoc Signo Vinces, “in this sign, conquer,” below it. He then dreamed that Jesus Christ himself came to him, telling him to bring the sign of the cross into battle. Constantine did just that, putting the cross on all his banners.

Fresco of Constantine I in the center, on the Battle of Milvian Bridge, the Vatican. (Daryl Mitchell /CC BY-SA 2.0)

Despite being severely outnumbered, Constantine’s army thrashed Maxentius.’ Maxentius attempted to flee to Rome, but before he could reach home, he fell into a river and drowned, likely crushed by his surviving men, who were also fleeing. Constantine took all of this as a sign and officially converted to Christianity. 

He then announced himself Augustus (again) and marched into Rome. As Augustus of the West, one of his first acts was to issue the Edict of Milan. This announced the toleration of all religions, especially Christianity. 

While this was going on, the East had its own problems. Following the death of Galerius, Maximinus and Licinius began fighting for control of the East. There was a brief peace after the two decided to split it between them, but they fell out again in 313 AD and went to war again.

Ultimately, Licinius came out victorious. Licinius did so by winning the favor of the Christians, whom Maximinus had promised to destroy. Maximinus ended up killing himself, and Licinius executed anyone who might be a danger to him, including the sons of Galerius and Severus, Maximinius’ whole family, and Diocletian’s daughter.

Now it was time for Licinius and Constantine to go to war. Up until 316 AD, they had held an uneasy truce thanks to Licinius’ tolerance of Christianity (he co-signed the Edict of Milan) and the fact he was married to Constantine’s half-sister. Exactly what caused them to go to war is unknown, but one of Licinius’ closest allies trying to assassinate Constantine probably didn’t help.

The two first fought at the Battle of Cibalae. It was an easy victory for Constantine. Their next battle, at Hadrianopolis, also went his way and resulted in land cessions to him.

Following the battle of Mardian in 317 AD, the two emperors decided to make peace. All this fighting was bad for the empire. It wouldn’t last long. In 320 AD, Licinius changed his mind about the Christians and began persecuting them, executing the worshippers, seizing their lands, and burning their churches. This made Constantine look bad, and he began raising an army, determined to put down Licinius the first chance he got.

Civil War broke out in 324 AD, and several large battles ensued, including a second at Hadrianopolis. In September of that year, Constantine defeated Licinius at Chrysopolis. Licinius surrendered and asked to be allowed to retire. Constantine agreed and allowed Licinius to go back to civilian life. Then he changed his mind and decided it would be better to hang Licinius and his 9-year-old son. 

Building Byzantium

It had been a long road, but at 52 years old, Constantine was finally Rome’s sole emperor. After years of unrest, the empire was united, and stability could resume. Yet there was a problem.

The city of Rome itself wasn’t the capital it had once been. Years of war and neglect had left it crumbling, and despite Constantine’s attempts at sprucing it up, he soon realized a new capital was needed. There weren’t any good options.

Nicomedia had been Diocletian’s capital, so that was out. The ancient city of Troy was an option but came with its own baggage. In the end, Constantine set his sights on Byzantium. 

This ancient city was on the European side of the Bosporus, meaning it was strategically located. It could look over the traffic to and from the Black Sea, and its harbor, The Golden Horn, was easy to defend. Even better, it wasn’t associated with any past emperors, and in its current state, it could be rebuilt in Constantine’s image.

The Colossal marble head of Emperor Constantine the Great, Roman, 4 th century, located in the Capitoline Museums in Rome. ( CC BY-SA 3.0 )

He brought in master craftsmen and artisans from across the empire to revitalize the city. Wide avenues with statues of great emperors like Alexander, Caesar, Augustus, and Diocletian were built. Even more statues of Constantine were placed all over the place. 

The city walls were rebuilt and fortified, cisterns were built, and churches like the Hagia Irene were dotted across the city. In a nod to religious freedom, pagan temples were also built. 

Constantine and Christianity

Constatine’s relationship with Christianity isn’t as clear-cut as it might seem. During his prolonged rise to power, he had always shown tolerance to Christians and pagans alike. While he had claimed to be Christian since 312 AD, some sources state he was only baptized on his deathbed. In his youth, he had openly worshiped the sun god.

His tolerance probably came from his mother, who was a devout Christian. After becoming Emperor, he sent her on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, where she built Bethlehem’s Church of the Nativity. 

Some historians say Constantine made Christianity the empire’s official religion, while others say it was Theodosius. The truth seems to be somewhere in between. Constantine certainly favored the Christians and happily abolished crucifixions and banned gladiatorial contests. He also stopped pagan sacrifices, created laws against sexual immorality, and banned ritual prostitution. 

However, he tolerated most pagan practices and built pagan temples. Pagan symbols like Sol Invictus, and Mars also appeared on his coins. Constantine was a wise ruler and knew that persecuting pagans would make him look like a hypocrite and make him enemies he couldn’t afford to make.

A gold coin of “Unconquered Constantine” with the god Sol Invictus behind him, struck in AD 313. The use of Sol’s image stressed Constantine’s status as his father’s successor, appealed to the educated citizens of Gaul, and was considered less offensive than the traditional pagan pantheon to the Christians (Public Domain)

Still, Constantine saw himself as a Christian leader, and in 325 AD, he invited clerics from all over his empire to the Council of Nicaea. This massive event led to the condemnation of Arianism (the belief that Christ was not divine) and the creation of the Nicene Creed (the definition of what it means to be Christian). 

Death

The rest of Constantine’s reign was equally busy. In 332 AD, he had his son, Crispus, executed on charges of adultery. According to ancient sources, these charges came from Constantine’s second wife, Fausta, who was in love with Crispus. When the young man rejected her advances, she fabricated the charges as an act of revenge. After these charges were proven to be false, Fausta killed herself. Constantine never quite got over the guilt.

Gold coin of Constantine’s eldest son Crispus, who was executed by his father. Right: Bust of Constantine’s wife Fausta, in the Louvre, Paris (Public Domain, Louvre Museum/ CC BY 3.0)

Perhaps to distract himself, Constantine continued his role as a commander in the military. He led various successful campaigns, defeating the Alemannia in 328 AD and the Goths in 332 AD. His dream, however, was to defeat the Persians in a “Christian Crusade” after they invaded Armenia in 336 AD. He never got the chance.

In early 337 AD, Constantine became ill and realized the end was nigh. He called off his campaign and began preparing for his death. Constantine left his capital to visit the hot baths near Helenopolis (his mother’s city) in the hopes they might revitalize him. Instead, his condition grew worse, and he arranged to be baptized in the River Jordan, where it was said Christ was baptized.

Ancient sources claim Constantine died not long after being baptized in 337 AD. He was then buried at the Church of the Holy Apostles. His sons Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans then took over the family business. Like their father before them, they disliked sharing power and soon fell out, sparking another war. Finally, Constantius II emerged victorious and became the new sole emperor.

Conclusion

Constantine’s journey to becoming the sole ruler of the Roman Empire was a long and arduous one, marked by years of fierce battles and political maneuvering. After securing his position, he ruled for over three decades, steering the empire through monumental changes. 

His reign saw the foundation of Byzantium, the future Byzantine Empire, and the elevation of Christianity from a persecuted faith to the empire’s dominant religion. Constantine’s legacy endured across the Christian world and the Eastern Roman Empire, reflecting the undeniable mark he left on history, both as a conqueror and as a visionary leader.

Top image: Statue of Constantine I, near York Minster, York, England.       Source: Son of Groucho / CC BY 2.0

By Robbie Mitchell

Dr. Zahi Hawass is likely the most famous archaeologist in the world at the moment. He’s active on a number of projects, sometimes traveling abroad to give a talk or leading groups around Egypt’s bounty of archaeological sites. He continues to play a large role in major excavations and is known for promoting Egypt and native-born Egyptologists.

He and his team discovered the necropolis of the builders of the pyramids at Giza, began excavations of tombs at Bahariya Oases, initiated the Egyptian Mummy Project, discovered major tombs, and more.

In the past, he has held various positions in the government, culminating as Supreme Head of Antiquities. Dr. Hawass has published many books and is a frequent presence in the media. Now on Netflix is Unknown: The Lost Pyramid, in which Dr. Hawass and his team search for the Pyramid of Huni at Saqqara. 

Around twenty-five years ago, I met Dr. Hawass after his lecture at the University of Pennsylvania’s Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology in Philadelphia. I recall some of his humor on the topic of pyramid power. (Years before that, he had a Fulbright Award to complete his doctorate at UPENN.) The audience was excited to see his slides and hear about his latest projects and Egyptology in general. Afterwards, he signed books. In June 2023, I met him after his lecture during his Grand Tour in New York City.

Recently, he was very generous in granting me this interview on Zoom (below). There is such antiquity and brilliance to ancient Egypt that draws in countless people around the globe. It is solid and real and seems to float in your mind. It is one of the cradles of civilization and has influenced history and cultures from then to now.

Egyptology, like so much else, is a changing field, with one of the revolutions being the use of advanced technology – the focus of this interview. Yet, from early on, technology and discovery have worked hand in hand. High Tech illuminates more and more.

President Barack Obama & Dr. Hawass exploring on an expedition. (Public Domain)

This interview between Dr. Hawass and Dr. Richard Marranca:

Greetings Dr. Hawass. Thanks for taking the time out of your busy schedule. I know you’re involved in a number of projects. Last spring, I met you after your Grand Tour lecture in New York City. You get around. You have an abundance of spirit. 

It’s my pleasure to see you. Well, it’s a passion for archaeology – giving all this energy to continue and excavate, lecture and travel.

That’s very inspiring. I know you’re very involved with high tech for discovery and excavation. Can we talk about that?

Of course. With technology, we are using many things to help us now, like the use of robots to study pyramids. Also, there are very new techniques such as infrared and ultrasound; these new techniques have never been used before to explore voids inside the pyramid. We are using robots and 3D to record graffiti inside the five chambers above the king’s chamber.

Also, we’re using 3D for recording the Golden City. 3D gives great details of the discovery. We’re also using a CT scan to know the secrets of the mummies’ DNA and to know relationships between mummies. New technology has become very important to archaeology.

Was it hard to learn about all this new technology? And can we start with the Great Pyramid?

Sure. I hire the expertise in that field, and they do the work for me. We have a team that will come next week to finalize the big voids inside the Great Pyramid. Until we decide how, we are going to take photos of these big voids in the pyramids through the new techniques – we’ll make a big announcement about this discovery.

The tunnel is 20 by 20 centimeters (7.87 in). The only way to reveal any secrets of the pyramid is to use a robot. And the robot is the one that found all these doors in the pyramid.

What about the use of X-rays and CT scans?

X-rays can’t be done in a tomb, because you cannot move the CT scan. We have a CT scan from the Siemen’s company next to the Cairo Museum in Tahrir Square.

Tutankhamun

Since the time of the discovery in 1922, Tut has had endless fascination for people around the world. Can you tell us about him and his family?

DNA research is being done on how Tutankhamun died. DNA research is being done on Queen Nefertiti and her daughter, Ankhesenamun, the Queen of Tutankhamun.

We’re still waiting for the results. I found out that he was in an accident two days before he died. We are searching now to see if he had an infection when he died. We hope to make an announcement about Nefertiti soon as well.

Now we have to wait. If for sure that this accident caused infection, then maybe he was hunting wild animals in the Valley of Gazelles. He’s the only king who built a rest house at Giza. He could rest after a hard hunting day because he had some physical problems and needed rest. And that’s why he built this palace near Khafre, the builder of the second pyramid in Giza.

Based on the scenes – and with his wife, Ankhesenamun. Tut loved nature.

Scanning the Pharaohs: CT Imaging of the New Royal Kingdom Mummies by Dr. Zahi Hawass was recognized as one of the 2016 Outstanding Academic Titles. (American University of Cairo)

It’s hard to keep up with the latest research on the family – that is, Akhenaten and the others. Can you shine a candle on this research?

We published the family. We found out that Akhenaten was the father. We found the mummy of his mother. We found the mummy of Queen Tiye. This had been published and announced about the family. I think two months from now, we’ll be able to make a big announcement of the discovery of the mummy of Queen Nefertiti and the mummy of her daughter Ankhesenamun, and how Tutankhamun died.

We found his mummy. Our project was the family of Tutankhamun. We found the mummy of Akhenaten in KV55. The features of the body are a translation of what’s written in the poem of Atun. Like they say, you are the man, you are the woman. And they gave the body of all Amarna people the features of Atun. This is why not only kings and the queens but even the common people — you can see the swollen stomach and the body.

(The pyramids at Giza are one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World – and the only one still intact. They may have lost most of their brilliant limestone casing, but they are still mountainous, incredible and mysterious. There is much in the news lately about how they were built. Dr. Hawass has something to say about that.)

Did you find the tombs of the pyramid builders?

Yeah, we found the tombs of the pyramid builders. We found the lower cemetery of the workmen who moved the stones and the upper cemetery for the technicians. And to the east, we found an area for sorting salted fish. The bakery: we found the villages that the workmen lived in it, and we have evidence that the workmen who built the pyramid were 10,000 workmen. They’re working for the king, and they were paid by the households on Upper and Lower Egypt. In return, the households did not pay taxes to the king.

It’s very important to discover the life of the people who built the pyramids. This is amazing. I never thought that this discovery could happen, but I’m really glad that this is a major discovery that tells us for the first time that the builders of the pyramids were Egyptians and there were no slaves, because if there were slaves, they would never be buried in the shadow of the pyramids. If they were slaves, they would never prepare their tombs for eternity like kings and queens.

Pyramids: New Theory in Old Bottles

I have seen a bunch of articles recently about how the pyramids were built – something about waterways. Can you delve into that?

Waterways are something that we found 35 years ago. And what’s written in this article is not new. We published that the Egyptians cut another River Nile to the west of the existing one, connected with canals and harbors. And we have the jar of papyri that the overseer, the inspector of the workmen, telling us about transporting white fine limestone for the casing of the pyramids through cargo boats. We knew this 35 years ago. What has been published recently is not really new.

You called the Valley of the Golden Mummies “A Festival of Mummies.” A lot of mummies – they revealed a lot, right?  

We examined the mummies and the site with X-rays because we cannot move the CT scan. And the X-ray tells us about how they died, the age of the person, of death, any diseases that they suffered. The x-ray gives us information about the persons and how they died. And we examined many mummies that were discovered in the Valley of the Golden Mummy.

Valley of the Golden Mummies at the Bahariya Oasis in the Western Desert of Egypt. (Viktor Lazić/CC BY-SA 4.0)

Bioarachaeology is really fascinating. Can you tell us what the mummies revealed about the health, diseases and dental problems of these ancient people?

You know, I think the most important thing that we found, for most of them is that they died early. It’s because the water in the well was full of iron and that affected their health.

We found in our research with the CT scan many diseases. We found one mummy, she had a heart attack and that’s why she opened her mouth. One mummy, she had cancer. All types of diseases that you can imagine were found through our Egyptian mummy project to study the mummies through a CT scan. A CT scan can take 1,000 photographs of each mummy and can give you a lot of information about the age of death and about many other things.

Yes, cancer and plague. Any kind of disease they found. The mummies found recently show evidence of heart attacks. And we found out, when she had the heart attack, she opened her mouth. That’s why they call this mummy ‘the screaming mummy.’ Mostly we examine the mummies of the royal family. We very rarely examine mummies of the common people, because the common people also never mummified. Mummification can be done by the people who can afford it only.

Can you tell us about their diet? Also is it true they drank a lot of beer and had some huge breweries?

Yeah, of course. Beer was very important for the ancient Egyptian. Then, the national diet for the ancient Egyptian was eating garlic, onions, bread, and drinking beer. They had five kinds of beer in the time of building the pyramids.  Beer-making facilities were found everywhere. And in most of the tombs of the Old Kingdom and the New Kingdom, there are many scenes of how they made beer and many scenes of people drinking.

Woman Pouring Beer. (Public Domain)

Egypt was known as a breadbasket with a diverse diet. This was made possible by the Nile.  

The Nile was very important because it gives fertility to the land. And this is why the land and agriculture were very important to the Egyptians because through agriculture, they could eat wheat and barley and make beer. Also, the Nile connected with Upper and Lower Egypt to be the important source of transportation for the Egyptians.

I know you have just a few minutes. Can we focus on some of the new stuff, Lidar, Satellites, Drones?

I don’t believe satellites are very important. For example, if you walk on the site of Saqqara, you can see tombs in front of you. I don’t really believe that satellite images are very important for the accuracy of vision.

We use drones when filming only, and we did this at Saqqara and the Golden city in Luxor.

What are new projects – and what would be a dream discovery for you?

I’m working on the secrets of the Great Pyramid, what’s behind the doors, searching for the Lost Pyramid of Saqqara, working with DNA to find out that the mummy of Queen Nefertiti and her daughter, excavating in the Valley of the Kings to search for the tomb of Queen Nefertiti and other missing kings, and also to excavate in a valley that’s not known to the public. I think that 2024- 2025 is going to be a very important time for archaeology. My dream is to discover the tomb of Queen Nefertiti in the Valley of the Kings.

Top image: Zahi Hawass examining a Mummy (2018).     Source: Muhammad A. Fadoul/CC BY-SA 4.0)

By Dr. Richard Marranca

Prehistoric hunter-gatherers deliberately targeted prime reindeer as part of a logistically organized seasonal subsistence strategy according to new archaeological evidence.

People from the Late Gravettian era, more than 27,000 years ago, travelled many kilometers to hunting grounds in the foothills of Bohemia in what is now Chechia, armed with weapons and butchery equipment.

There, they knew they would find reindeer in sufficient quantity to supply them with meat and valuable resources such as fat, bone and antler before the freezing winter conditions returned.

The research, led by archaeologists from the University of Exeter with partners across Europe, reveals that the Gravettian hunters were not following migrating herds of reindeer over long distances, but targeting relatively sedentary populations during early autumn, an optimal time of year for hunting reindeer.

The findings are published in the latest edition of the journal Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences.

“Reindeer was a key prey species for prehistoric man, providing meat, critical subcutaneous and marrow fats and hides that were used for clothing,” says Dr Alex Pryor, lead author from Exeter’s Department of Archaeology and History.

 “The quality of these varied according to the season, particularly regarding the hide, where fur length would dictate how warm and portable the clothes would be. This placed a premium on hunting reindeer in the autumn and ensured that any location where reindeer could be predictably found at that time would be highly attractive.”

Picking the Bones For Data

The focus of the research centered on a kill-butchery site called Lubná VI, located approximately 50km (31 miles) west of Prague. The area has been the focus of archaeological interest since the 1890s, but Lubná VI itself was not discovered until 2006, and has been the focus of numerous excavations since.

One of those digs – in 2018 – unearthed stone tools, bones and two hearths, which led to the identification of at least seven reindeer, along with the remains of several other species.

Radiocarbon dating of one of the bones enabled the researchers to conclude that the site would have been in operation around 27,500-27,100 years ago, and analysis of the tools estimated that they originated at least 120km (75 mi) away, in either southwest Poland or Saxony.

Reindeer skeleton in situ at the Lubná VI site. (Dr Alex Pryor/Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences)

For the project, the team selected 21 teeth for strontium, oxygen and carbon isotope analysis, a technique that enables scientists to examine the chemical make-up of enamel for evidence of where the animal had grazed on vegetation. Eleven of the teeth were subjected to additional testing to establish the season in which the animal died.

The results revealed that, unlike many modern herds of reindeer, there was little to no evidence of long-distance movement, with the majority living on the foothills of the Bohemian-Moravian highlands and in the flat Bohemian Cretaceous plains. Some seasonal migration within or between the two areas was detected in a small number of the deer.

Dr Pryor said:

“The results reveal that the reindeer were available to hunt in the foothills region in all seasons of the year, with a seasonal influx of additional animals during the spring and summer months that migrated up from the Cretaceous plains.”

Analysis of the dental cement was possible for three of the animals and indicated that all three had died during in the autumn or early winter.

Dr Pryor, who coordinated the project alongside colleagues in Czechia, Hungary, Poland and the University of Southampton, said the results showed for the first time that the reindeer had adapted to their Central Europe environment – and their hunters had come to understand this.

“Arriving from the east, these Lubná hunters came armed with the knowledge that there would be reindeer to hunt at a critical time of the year, and the tools to process their meat and hides,” concludes Dr Pryor. “This reveals a level of seasonal and logistical strategy well beyond a simple chance-based tracking of prey as and when they were encountered.”

Reindeer prey mobility and seasonal hunting strategies in the late Gravettian mammoth steppe is available through Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences.

Top image: Reindeer jaw and teeth from the Lubná VI site used in the study.    Source:  Dr Alex Pryor/Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences

This article is a press release by the University of Exeter, first published under the title, “Ancient humans strategically targeted reindeer-rich territory in the autumn for winter food and clothing”.

The Spanish Inquisition, which began in 1481 and lasted until 1834, is notorious for its brutal methods, such as torture and public executions, often targeting those accused of heresy or practicing prohibited religious customs. One case involved Elira Campo, who was tortured after being accused of secretly practicing Judaism, following her forced conversion to Catholicism. Her ordeal reflects the harsh techniques of the Inquisition, where individuals were frequently subjected to severe physical torment to extract confessions.

Initially, the Inquisition sought to unify Spain religiously, targeting converted Jews (conversos) and Muslims (moriscos) suspected of secretly adhering to their old faiths. Despite its reputation, the institution was more systematic and legally bound than popularly imagined. Trials often ended in acquittals, and only a minority faced execution. Over time, the Inquisition expanded its scope, targeting offenses such as witchcraft, though it prosecuted far fewer witches compared to other European countries.

By the mid-17th century, the Inquisition’s focus shifted primarily to maintaining religious uniformity in Spain. While its history is filled with cruelty and coercion, recent research suggests that its activities, particularly in terms of torture and executions, may have been more limited than previously believed. Nonetheless, the Inquisition remains one of the darkest chapters in Spanish history.

Top image: Medieval Inquisitor. Source: diter/Adobe Stock

By Robbie Mitchell

Ten years ago scientists detected odd and mysterious noises coming from inside the planet’s deepest ocean trench, the Mariana Trench. The sounds were identified as “biotwangs” and were comprised of deep moaning or grumbling noises followed by a series of high-pitched metallic-sounding pings. Despite the almost mechanical nature of the sound, scientists were certain that it must be the call of some species of animal (most likely a large whale). That theory has now been confirmed.

With the help of an artificial intelligence identification system developed by Google, experts affiliated with the United States government’s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) have discovered that the strange sounds were made by Bryde’s whales. This species of baleen whale is seldom spotted in the wild, but these gigantic creatures (they can grow to up to 55 feet or 17 meters long) possess the ability to swim to extreme depths.

Artificial Intelligence Reveals the Secret Lives of Bryde’s Whales

The odd biotwangs were recorded in 2014 by scientists using underwater vehicles to complete an acoustic survey of the Mariana Trench, which can be found in the northwestern Pacific Ocean running diagonally of the coast of Japan. This huge underwater landform covers more than 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers) of seafloor, reaching a maximum depth of 6.8 miles (10.9 kilometers).

SRTM bathymetry map shows the depth of the Mariana trench region, off the coast of Japan and Insonesia. (astrobob/CC BY-SA 4.0)

In an article published in Frontiers in Marine Science, the researchers involved in this new study explain how they used the AI system to sort through more than 200,000 hours of undersea audio recordings, looking specifically for whale sounds. These recordings were made by NOAA hydrophones mounted in the region surrounding the Mariana Islands, which are located above the massive trench that shares their name.

The AI system was trained to detect the distinctive signals of eight species of whale, including Bryde’s whales, whose sounds had been recorded while they were swimming near the Mariana Islands a few years ago.

Scientists already knew there was a strong similarity between the sounds heard coming from the Mariana Trench and the calls emitted by the Bryde’s whales spotted near the adjacent islands. And in a 2016 study they’d detected certain markers in the 2014 recordings that proved they must have come from some type of baleen whale.  But this wasn’t enough to conclusively prove a link. More evidence was needed, and this is what the undersea NOAA recordings provided.

Given the voluminous nature of the recordings collected by NOAA, it would have been impossible for humans to sort through them looking for specific sounds linked to one animal species. But the high-powered AI system created by Google was able to track the migratory movements of Bryde’s whales across the region, separating out its distinctive calls and connecting them to the underwater locations where they were recorded as they swam by. It did this using a unique process that converted the biotwangs and related sounds into images known as spectrograms, which a machine learning algorithm was then able to differentiate from other recorded noises.

Throughout their travels one group of Bryde’s whales in particular continued to emit the biotwang sounds that could now be identified as the same ones detected in the Mariana Trench in 2014. With so many matches sorted out of recordings, the source of the mysterious trench sounds could no longer be debated, despite its highly extraordinary qualities.

Bryde’s whale breaching the ocean surface off the coast of Brazil. (Zejulio/CC BY-SA 4.0)

“Your average person would not think that it was made by an animal – they would think it was some ship or the [US] Navy,” study lead author Ann Allen from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) said in an interview with New Scientist. 

Intriguingly, these distinctive whale calls were not found in recordings that covered Bryde’s whale migration paths in other parts of the Pacific. It was only the Bryde’s whales living in the vicinity of the Mariana Trench that were recorded making these sounds, as they completed their migrations across that underwater region of the globe.

This means the strange biotwang belongs to what is essentially a local dialect, highlighting the intelligence and creativity of this elusive baleen whale species.

“It’s possible that they use the biotwang as a contact call, a sort of ‘Marco Polo’ of the ocean,” Allen told  Popular Science.  “But we need more information before we can say for sure.”

Whale Migrations May Be Threatened by Climate Change

One surprising finding of the new research is that there was a sudden increase in the frequency of the biotwang noises in 2016. At this time there was a rise in ocean temperatures in the northwest Pacific caused by an El Niño event, which led to increased migration of Bryde’s whales into the area.

The Mariana Trench is located in a part of the ocean where a moving boundary separates warm water from cool water, and Bryde’s whale migrations seem to be tied to the movements of that boundary (warmer waters means an increase in the population of plankton and other creatures these huge whales consume). The boundary actually has a name, which is the transition zone chlorophyll front.

“As climate change advances, we expect more frequent and more extreme El Niño and La Niña events, and we expect this transition zone chlorophyll front to go further north and be more variable,” Allen said.

“This means that the whales may have to travel further and work a lot harder to find their food, which can impact the health of the population.”

It is intriguing to speculate whether the whales themselves will recognize that underwater conditions are changing as climate change progresses. They obviously wouldn’t know what was responsible for the changes, but given their great intelligence it seems possible that they understand that something significant was going on.

Top image: Deep sea fish, the type imagined to be found in the Mariana Trench.  Source: superjoseph/Adobe Stock

By Nathan Falde

The passage of the millennia has brought us traces of ancient civilizations that shone enough to make their cultural glimpses last through the ages. Humanity itself has featured in the art, culture, and funerary rites of these civilizations, so while from a mollusk we only find a trace of fossilized shell, from a human we find much more than just remains, we find pyramids, mounds, sculptures, coins, tools, weapons, scripts, treasures, houses, palaces, altars, and more.

All of this, in light of archaeology, allows us to know more about our ancestors. But for some of them, like the Thracians, what has been discovered barely casts a shadow over what is still unknown. There are many mysteries surrounding this ancient civilization that occupied what is now Bulgaria and some adjoining parts of Romania, Greece, and Turkey.

In archaeological terms, evidence of civilization in Bulgarian lands date back thousands of years. Not coincidentally it was found in Provadia (Bulgaria) the oldest prehistoric city in Europe, dated between 4,700 BC and 4,200 BC, a fortified settlement of 350 inhabitants. On the other hand, we know that for years the world’s oldest golden treasure was not found in Sumeria, nor in Egypt, nor in pre-Columbian America but in Varna (Bulgaria), and dates from 4,600 BC.

Provadia, Bulgaria. (Bulgarian Ministry of Tourism)

Scientists and archaeologists still harbor serious doubts about who the people were that mixed with the Thracians around 5,000 years ago, from which Thracian civilization itself would emerge. But it is known that there were some who came from the North to the Balkans with their livestock, finding a place with a bright and attractive culture. It was the intermingling between the local population and the new arrivals that allows us to talk today of the Thracians.

The Thracians are well-known for their exuberant fighting spirit; but the history of a population is not built only on its wars and the exploits of its soldiers and leaders, as is usually read in encyclopedias and history books. Spread across Southeast Europe were groups of men and women who were highly skilled in working with refined metals, who were followers of a delicate mystique that worshiped the mother goddess, and who had complex funerary rituals immersed in symbolism.

There are many puzzles that arise when we investigate the ancient Thracians. For example, they had a rare ability for discovering and extracting natural deposits without harming nature. Archaeologists and anthropologists continue to be surprised by the kinds of advanced technological practices that the Thracians were using. If, as some scholars believe, they were intermingling with the people who inhabited Bulgarian lands since ancient times, they presumably exchanged knowledge, and their wisdom swelled as they incorporated the skills, practices, and information of the other culture.

So, what mysteries remain from the first Thracians over 5,000 years ago? Although we know of some Thracian names and words, they lacked their own alphabet and came to use Greek and Latin characters to perform certain inscriptions. However, this Indo-European language spoken by the Thracians is still a mystery and no one has been able to decipher it… yet. Some bilingual inscriptions in Greek characters written in ancient Greek and Thracian that were discovered in northern Greece could perhaps shed some light in helping to decipher the contents of the Thracians’ texts, something that certainly would reveal important information about the people of whom we still know hardly anything.

Journey to the Past

The Thracian burial rite is one of the most compelling evidences of belief in the afterlife and immortality of the soul. The Valley of the Thracian Kings is in the region of Kazanlak, where we can find several gravemounds, making this area a real route of the funeral ritual (over 500 burial hills). We are in the realm of the Odrisios (fifth century to the fourth century BC), ruled by King III Seuthes. Their mounds did not reach the colossal size of the pyramids of Egypt, but the Thracian funeral process had many things in common with the Egyptian one, not least the idea of resurrection and an afterlife. We drove to the ancient necropolis of the city of Seuthes III, called in those days Seuthopolis and headed to the mound-tomb of the King himself.

Kazanlak Reservoir – the site of Seuthopolis (Evgeni Dinev from Burgas, Bulgaria/CC BY 2.0)

The remains of Seuthes III were buried with his horse and his weapons, and a bronze statue of his own image that had been placed in a special chamber of the tomb, according to the Orphic funeral practices. Thus, we are reminded of Iberian funerary rituals in which the warrior was buried with his weapons but placed in a way that neutralized them, rendering them completely unusable. Why? The texts of the ancient Greek geographer and historian Herodotus shed light on this mystery. He claimed that whatever was destroyed or made unusable during funeral rites would become useful for the afterlife. The logic of this philosophy is overwhelming and beautiful, from my point of view. If the human being whose life was destroyed with the advent of death, was meant to revive in the Hereafter, so the objects had to ‘die’ to revive again. Death was the beginning of a new life. In this passage, the spirit of the deceased travelled to reach the heavenly abode where they would stay. On this trip, they needed to carry everything they would need.

The tomb of Seuthes III. (Rossitza Ohridska-Olson/CC BY-SA 3.0)

Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak, Bulgaria – ceiling fragment (replica).    (tonya kolarova/Adobe Stock

The most valuable thing for the elite of the Thracians warriors was their horse and their wife, though we do not really know in which order! So not only did they sacrifice their horse, but also their favorite wife. Was it cruel? If, as the ancients used to say, the Thracians wept at births and cheerfully sang at their deaths, far from being a cruel act, the Thracians considered it an honor. In fact, wives are said to have argued over who would have the honor of being the chosen one. As the Greek poet Hesiod said: “When a husband dies, his wives, which are many for each one, argue in competition held by the determination of those who are their close friends and relatives, and claim them to be the deceased husband’s dearest one. The wife who comes out victorious and honored with a judgment in her favor, which is full of praise and applause of men and women, will be beheaded by a kin hand over the grave of her husband and is buried beside him, while the ones who lost the case, that is for them the greatest infamy, remain mourning their misfortune”.

Part 2: Orphic Mysteries

Top image: Thracian Tomb of Sveshtari. Source:  KLMircea /CC BY-SA 2.0

* This article was originally written in Spanish and has been translated. It was updated Sept 2024.

By Mado Martínez

Archaeologists from the University of Oslo’s Museum of Cultural History have recently conducted an excavation at Holmetjønn, an ancient mountain cabin site along the historic Nordmannslepa trail. The investigation uncovered evidence of both Viking-age and medieval shelters in the harsh landscape of the Hardangervidda plateau. The findings will provide valuable insights into how travelers in this region sought shelter and sustenance while trekking through the mountains.

An Ancient Path

The Great Nordmannslepa is one of Norway’s ancient transport routes, stretching across the Hardangervidda and connecting Western and Eastern Norway, explains the University of Oslo report. It was once a crucial path for transporting goods and livestock. This summer, a team of archaeologists explored the remnants of a cabin near Holmetjønn, located about a five kilometer (3 mile) walk from the existing modern Stigstuv tourist lodge, following part of the old trail.

The great Nordmannslepa path winds over the Hardangervidda mountain range. (Magne Samdal/KHN University of Oslo)

The site contains two separate cabin foundations. The first is a stone structure likely seen by Professor Christopher Hansteen during his documented journey across the Hardangervidda in 1821. Hansteen was at this time a leading scientist, known for having calculated the exact location of the capital as well as the exact time of the battle of Stiklestad (31 August year 1030). 

But an older, more significant find lies below this structure: a second cabin foundation dating back to the Viking Age and the Middle Ages. This earlier cabin was in use for centuries by travelers navigating the path. By the time Hansteen used the path, it was marked by cairns, which he described in his memoirs as ‘comforting guides who say “You are still on the right path”, notes the report.

Findings at the Excavation Site

The excavation revealed numerous artifacts that provide a clearer picture of how travelers used these mountain shelters. Inside the remains of the cabin, archaeologists found two rooms: a small entrance area and a larger main room, likely centered around a large fireplace.

The main room served as a communal space where travelers would have gathered, cooked, and rested after long days of travel across the plateau.

Layers of soot and animal bones were found inside the cabin, showing that the space was repeatedly used for cooking and warmth. Here people sat and ate, throwing their food leftovers like bones directly into the fire – where they remained all this time. The bones were primarily from birds, fish, and reindeer, revealing that travelers relied on local wildlife for food.

In the main room, the archaeologists found a large hearth that took up much of the space in the shack. Here, people sat, ate, and enjoyed themselves, throwing their food scraps directly into the fire – where they remained for a thousand years. (Marianne Vedeler/KHN University of Oslo)

Evidence of wood from pine, birch, aspen, and willow was also uncovered, indicating that the travelers may have carried their fuel with them, as the high altitude surrounding area provided little firewood.

Outside the cabin, the archaeologists discovered numerous horseshoes, suggesting the cabin served as a resting place not only for people but also for the horses that accompanied them. The presence of these horseshoes points to the cabin’s role as an essential stopping point for both riders and animals along the trail.

Artifacts from the Viking Age

Among the most remarkable finds were two Viking-age hunting arrows and a fire steel, discovered just inside the cabin’s entrance.

One of the arrow heads found in the storeroom. (Marianne Vedeler/KHN University of Oslo)

The arrows, likely left behind by a hunter, were crafted with great skill, as iron was a valuable material at the time. This discovery suggests that the cabin may have been used as a base by hunters, taking advantage of the plentiful game in the surrounding mountains.

The fire steel, a small tool used to strike sparks and light fires, is a common artifact from this period, offering further evidence of the cabin’s Viking-era origins.

A fire steel, (an old fire lighter) found in the cabin. (Marianne Vedeler/KHN University of Oslo)

The site also contained layers of discarded bones, including entire cattle jaws, which had been thrown onto the fire. This raises questions about the types of food consumed by the travelers. One possibility is that they may have eaten smalahove, a traditional Norwegian dish made from sheep’s head, though this is still speculative.

Importance of the Excavation

The Holmetjønn excavation has provided valuable data about how people survived and traveled in the Norwegian mountains during the Viking Age and the Middle Ages.

In the Middle Ages, these mountain cabins were crucial shelters for travelers facing harsh weather and difficult terrain. Medieval laws even governed behavior inside the cabins, stating that if a shelter was full, lots would be drawn to determine who must leave. This underscores the importance of these shelters as life-saving structures in an unforgiving environment.

The archaeologists from the University of Oslo plan to continue their work at Holmetjønn, as the site holds great potential for further discoveries. This excavation is part of a larger project called FOODIMPACT, which is focused on studying medieval food culture in Norway.

By analyzing the remains found at this and other sites, researchers hope to gain deeper insights into the daily lives and survival strategies of the people who once traveled these ancient paths.

Top image: The foundation of an old hut near a hiking trail in Holmetjønn, Hardangervidda, Norway.    Source: Marianne Vedeler/KHN University of Oslo

By Gary Manners

A team of archaeologists from Peru, the United States, and Canada recently completed an analysis of 1,000-year-old textile samples recovered during excavations at the ancient and long-abandoned Andean city of Huacas de Moche northern Peru. Despite significant social, cultural, and political changes that had occurred in the region during the mid-to-late first millennium, it seems that some of the local Moche people’s cultural traditions had survived the passage of the centuries, as exhibited by the preservation of traditional ways of weaving and designing textiles.

“While occupants of the site experienced many outside cultural influences, including those from the highland Wari Empire, continuity in textile traditions suggests that some sense of Moche identity was maintained through the tenth century and after the perceived end of the Moche culture,” the study authors wrote in an article about their research published by Antiquity.

Huaca del Sol Moche building, Trujillo, Peru. (Jeffrey Quilter/ Antiquity Publications Ltd)

Unravelling Moche Through Their Textiles

Next to the one created by the Inca, the enigmatic Moche culture is perhaps the best known and most studied of all the ancient Andean cultures. It is famed for its sprawling temple complexes, most especially the adobe brick pyramidal structure known as Huaca del Sol. Constructed from more than 130 million bricks that were laid down in successive layers in the third through the fifth centuries AD, Huaca del Sol is the largest pre-Columbian structure of its type found anywhere in the Americas.

Sometime in the late first millennium, the Wari culture essentially replaced the Moche as the dominant force in the Central Andes. The Moche were subjugated both culturally and militarily by the Wari people, who came originally from the southern highlands, and this led to the decline and ultimately the demise of their civilization. Historians have concluded that the Moche had virtually disappeared as a separate and distinct culture by the middle of the ninth century, although this contention is disputed by some.

But whatever the fate of their culture, the Moche people did not die out completely after being absorbed into the Wari Empire. And it seems they maintained at least some degree of cultural memory, as the newly published study of their post-Wari textile-making practices makes clear.

Woven textile fragment made using Moche techniques, but decorated with distinctive Wari imagery. (Lizbeth Pariona Muñoz/Antiquity Publications Ltd)

Exploring Ancient Cultural and Ethnic Identities Using the Archaeological Record

The Moche culture is generally believed to have existed as a distinct entity from the second through the mid-ninth centuries AD. However, not much is known about the specifics of its beginning and its end.

“The people who built Huacas de Moche, now known as the Moche (a.k.a. the Mochicas), are only known to us through archaeology as they had no writing system,” explained anthropologist and study lead author Dr. Jeffrey Quilter from Harvard University’s Peabody Museum. “The date range for when the Moche culture existed has been debated for many decades.”

Rather than entering that debate, Dr. Quilter and his colleagues were more interested in gaining insight into a related issue.

“Our research involved our wrestling with the thorny and complicated issue of how ancient people identified themselves,” Dr. Quilter continued. “In brief, when did the Moche stop being Moche at the site of Huacas de Moche?”

To learn more about the persistence of the people’s sense of identity, the researchers set out to perform a more in-depth study of its cultural artifacts, with a special focus on textiles.

In addition to its temple complexes the ancient city of Huacas del Moche featured multiple public plazas and residential districts, making it clear the city was occupied by a relatively large number of people at its population peak. This has made it possible for archaeologists to recover a wide variety of artifacts from the site, including the preserved pieces of textile that have stood the test of time.

Textiles incorporating Moche and Wari images: left; crab man; Right; snake belt man. (Quilter, J et al./ Antiquity Publications Ltd)

In total the researchers examined approximately 20 textile samples recovered during Huacas de Moche excavations. They used radiocarbon dating to find out when the textiles were made, and discovered that many had weaved after the beginning of the 10th century AD. This was many decades beyond the point when the Moche had supposedly been fully assimilated into Wari culture.

Dr. Quilter and his team analyzed the textiles’ production techniques and decoration styles, and were able to identify a continuity between older Moche textile samples and those that dated to the 900-1000 AD range. Interestingly, the textiles did incorporate design features associated with the Wari culture, and with some other cultures in the region as well. But their identification as Moche artifacts was still indisputable.

What all of this shows is that Moche assimilation into the Wari Empire was far from complete.

“Our research indicates that longstanding Moche material cultural practices and styles continued to be valued at Huacas de Moche, long after the presumed end of the archaeological culture,” said study co-author Dr. Carlos Rengifo, an archaeologist from the National University of Trujillo in Peru. “Even as the world about them changed, some sense of Moche identity appears to have been maintained.”

What Archaeology Can Reveal, and What it Can’t

While the new research is revealing, there are limitations to what can be concluded about cultural identity without the presence of written evidence, as the study authors acknowledge.

“Until recently, it is likely that no one referred themselves as Moche,” Dr. Quilter noted. “Nevertheless, the archaeological culture that we call Moche clearly represents a distinct socio-cultural phenomenon and identity for those people who participated in it. Just as determining the cultural identity of any prehistoric community is fraught with difficulties, so too is identifying how they came to take on a new one.”

Top image: Some of the 20 textiles found at Huaca del Sol used in this study.  Source: Antiquity Publications Ltd

By Nathan Falde